IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING HISTORY
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The Meaning of GovernmentThe word government comes from the word 'govern' which means to control through regulations and a set of rules. Government means the way of ruling, administering and controlling a people. It deals with the exercising of authority and the directing of Electronic. people's lives as spelt out in their society.
Generally then, government is seen as the political organisation, structure and authority. It affects every aspect of man's life as a social being who is subject to some form of authority, starting from the home to schools and to all other organisations. The regulations and rules set in any social unit or organisation and the way they are implemented is an important aspect in government. In many cases, there are individuals or officers, assigned the duty of ensuring that all the rules, laws, customs, traditions and regulations are observed. These individuals have the power to punish those who break rules. Government is, therefore, a form of organised control in a defined geographical area, e.g., a country. The control is exercised. by a small body of people. It is this body that enforces laws for and on behalf of a larger section of the population or subjects. The government is therefore the small body of persons within a country who make and enforce laws. In conclusion, government deals with people's attempt at organised life, while History is the study of people's political, social and economic activities in relation to their environment. Government is therefore, part of history. It is people's attempt to govern themselves, their political activities Proverbs in relation to the rest of society. History and Government is therefore the study of people and society. Branches of HistoryHistory is divided into three branches. These are:
Political HistoryThis is the study of a people's way of ruling, people's leaders and the system of administration. It involves controlling, guiding, directing and managing people's activities and actions. Social HistoryThis is the study of people's beliefs, dressing, taboos, literature and religion. It involves the understanding of the cultural practices and ways of life of a people. Economic HistoryThis is the study of how people make their daily living. It is the study of the occupations of a people. It involves such activities as hunting and gathering, agriculture, industry, trade, transportation and communication.
Periods in HistoryThere are two basic periods in history:
The Meaning of HistoryHistory as a discipline is the study of man's past chronological account and record of events in relation to the environment. The study of which articulates, develops and encourages critical analysis of the social, political and economic aspects of man.
The word "History" is derived from a Greek word 'Historia' which means to ask, enquire or search for the truth and report the findings. There are many definitions put forward on the meaning of history. However, it is generally argued that history is man's attempt to answer the questions: What event? Who was involved? When, and why it took place as well as what effects the event had or has on the people involved. History is also a record, account, and analysis of human activities and relationships on earth in a given time. It is an important discipline that records, preserves and integrates both the physical and social developments as they affect man. Factors for the rise of nationalism in Africa.
NATIONALISM IN GHANA
The British annexed Gold Coast in 1874 after quelling a stiff resistance by the Asante. In response to the British imperialism, the Fonte Confederation was initiated in 1868, marking the birth of African Nationalism in Ghana. In 1897, the Aborigines Rights Protection Society was formed to guard against the alienation of African land.
In the 1930s, African elites like J.B. Danquah launched the Gold Coast Youth Conference in order to awaken the youth to the economic and social needs of the country.Their efforts bore fruits because in 1946, governor Burns embarked on constitutional reforms leading to increased African representation in the LegCo. (Of the 18 slots given to Africans in the LegCo, 13 were to drawn from among the chiefs while 5 were to be popularly elected). The elites formed the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) and invited Kwame Nkrumah, a graduate of the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, to come and lead it since most of them were professionals lacking time for political commitment. Nkrumah appeared to have more political experience having participated in the 1945 Manchester conference. Factors for the growth of nationalism in Ghana.
The peak of nationalism in Ghana.
On 28th February 1948, the ex-soldiers led the Accra riots, protesting to Governor Gerald Creasy the failed fulfillment of the government pledges while in service during the World War II. Two rioters were killed. The shooting incident sparked of chaos in the town leading to another 29 Africans being killed. Nkrumah was arrested together with his colleagues popularly known as the ‘Big Six’. (Nkrumah, Danquah, William Ofori, Addo, Adjei and Obetsebi Lamptey).
This arrest popularized Nkrumah among the Africans. The 1948 Alken Watson commission blamed the social-economic oppression for the riots. The governor ordered for constitutional reforms led by J.H Coussey. On 12th June 1949, Nkrumah broke ranks with the conservative UGCC senior members and formed the Convention People’s Party (CPP). His party gained support mainly from among the primary school leavers, store-keepers, artisans, peasants and cocoa farmers. Nkrumah advocated positive action through legitimate political action, newspaper and political campaigns and constitutional application of boycotts, strikes and non-cooperation based on the policy of absolute non-violence on the basis of Mahatma Gandhi teachings. He started a newspaper, The Accra Evening News to expound CPP views. He was arrested, but secured landslide victory in the February 1951 elections while in jail. He was released to become the leader of government business in the new cabinet. CPP also won in the 1954 elections in which a new party, the National Liberation Movement (NLM) had emerged to compete CPP. NLM membership mainly from the Ashanti, were uncomfortable with Nkrumah because;
Achievements of CPP under Kwame Nkrumah.
How Kwame Nkrumah contributed to the liberation struggle in Africa.
NATIONALISM IN MOZAMBIQUE.
Mozambique was among the last countries in Africa to attain independence from the Portuguese. Even before the Berlin conference, Mozambique and Angola were considered Portuguese colonies owing to the later’s interests in the region dating back to the pioneer years.
Reasons for slow process in decolonization process of Mozambique.
Factors for the growth of nationalism in Mozambique.
The peak of nationalism in Mozambique.
In early 1960, the Makonde people of Cabo Delgado province formed the Mozambican-Makonde Union (MANU).In June 1960 MANU organized a peaceful protest but in which over 600 Africans perished in police firepower. The government outlawed all African organizations with membership of over thirty people. African political activities went underground. Mwalimu Julius Nyerere inviting some of the liberation groups to relocate to Tanzania in 1962. The political groups united to form the Liberation Front of Mozambique (FRELIMO) with Eduardo Mondlane Chirambo, formerly a lecturer at Syracuse University in USA, as its first president.
From 1962 to 1964, FRELIMO undertook guerilla training in Bagamoyo and at the Mozambique institute in Dar es Salam in preparation for war. From September 1964, they began a full-scale war against the Portuguese along river Ruvuma and extending their attacks on the Cabo Delgado province. By 1967, the Portuguese forces numbered 65,000 soldiers. Mondlane Eduardo was assassinated in 1969. Samora Machel was elected to become the FRELIMO army commander in 1970. The coup d’etat in Lisbon in 1974 was a blessing to FRELIMO movement since soldiers who did not favour colonial wars by Marcello Caetano carried it out. The new military junta finally signed an agreement with FRELIMO the enabled the setting up of a transitional government in September 1974. He handed over power to the Africans in 1975 with Samora Machel becoming the first president. Machel died in 1986 in a plane crash blamed on the South African Apartheid regime, unhappy with his support for African nationalists in South Africa.Samora Machel’s widow, Graca Machel, married South African President Nelson Mandela in 1994. Reasons why the struggle for independence in Mozambique was violent.
Factors that facilitated the defeat of the Portuguese colonial armies by FRELIMO in Mozambique.
Problems that faced FRELIMO in the war against Portuguese.
SOUTH AFRICA.
The complex nature of nationalism in South Africa was due to the following reasons;
Afrikaner nationalism
Afrikaners were the Dutch speaking – speaking settlers. The Afrikaner nationalism emerged in the 19th century reaching its peak in 1948 when their Nationalist Party under Daniel F. Malan won the elections introducing the Apartheid policy.
Reasons for the birth of Afrikaner Nationalism in South Africa.
African Nationalism
Its roots are traced in the 17th century with the first Boer occupation of South Africa. Africans resisted strongly against the interference with their political freedom and economic resources. This was in form of the Xhosa and Ndebele wars of the 17th c and the Zulu wars of 1870s led by Cetewayo.
In 1906, a Zulu chief named Bambata staged another African uprising this time against the British who had annexed the Zululand in 1887. From 1910, when the union of South Africa was created and the Afrikaners gained political control of South Africa, Africans lost all the political privileges they previously enjoyed like ability to vote and contest parliamentary seats. Africans founded independent churches and formed organizations like the Orange River Organization. Factors for the growth of African nationalism in South Africa.
Formation of the African National Congress, 1912
Opposition to the Natives Land Act led to the formation of the South African Native National Congress (renamed the African National Congress [ANC] in 1923) by South Africa's educated African elite in a meeting at Bloemfontein on January 8, 1912.
As a result of the League’s activities, violent confrontations between ANC and the government broke out in 1952 in Witwatersrand, Kimberley and Eastern Cape. The Congress of the People and the Freedom Charter
In 1952, Albert Sisulu became the president of the organization and presided over the ‘congress of the people’ which adopted the ‘Freedom Charter’ on June 25 and June 26 1955.
The congress drew 3,000 delegates from;
After adoption of the charter, in 1956 the police arrested 156 leaders, including Luthuli, Mandela, Tambo, Sisulu, and others, and put them on trial for treason in a court case that dragged on for five years. The Pan-Africanist Congress and Sharpeville.
The Africanists, led by Robert Sobukwe, criticized the ANC for allowing itself to be dominated by 'liberal-left-multi-racialists”. They formed their own organization, the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC) in 1959. In March 1960, the PAC began a national campaign against the pass laws. One such demonstration outside the police station at Sharpeville, the police fired on the demonstrators, killing at least 76 of them and wounding 186. Approximately 18,000 demonstrators were arrested, including the leaders of the ANC and the PAC, and both organizations outlawed.
The ANC and the PAC Turn to Violence.
Prohibited from operating, both the ANC and the PAC established underground organizations in 1961. The militant wing of the ANC, Umkhonto we Sizwe (Spear of the Nation), targeted strategic places such as police stations and power plants. Poqo (Blacks Only), the militant wing of the PAC, engaged in a campaign of terror, targeting in particular African chiefs and headmen believed to be collaborators with the government and killing them.
17 Umkhonto leaders, including Walter Sisulu were arrested at Rivonia farm house. Along with Nelson Mandela, they were tried for treason. Albert Luthuli was confined by government to his rural home in Zululand until his death in 1967. Tambo escaped from South Africa and became president of the ANC in exile. Robert Sobukwe of Poqo was jailed on Robben Island until 1969 and then placed under house arrest in Kimberley until his death in 1978. The Johannesburg railway station bomber, John Harris, was hanged. The Black conscious movement - Soweto, 1976.
The peak of African nationalism in South Africa.
In 1983, P.W. Botha's government proposed establishment of separate houses of parliament for each racial group. In place of the single House of Parliament were;
Black trade unions meanwhile resorted to economic and political protests. For example, The National Union of Mineworkers (NUM), formed in 1983 by Cyril Ramaphosa, successfully brought work in mines to a stop in a dispute over wage increases. By end of 1985, 879, fatalities and 8000 arrests were linked to political unrest. ANC and UDF were banned. Meanwhile, Supporters of the Zulu-dominated Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) and the banned ANC clashed in an upsurge of "black-on-black" violence that would cause as many as 10,000 deaths by 1994. President Botha resigned under pressure on August 14, 1989, the Electoral College named de Klerk to succeed him in a five-year term as president. In October 1989, De Klerk released Walter Sisulu and others except Mandela. He announced on February 2, 1990, the impending release of Mandela and unbanning of the ANC, the PAC, and the SACP, and the removal of restrictions on the UDF and other legal political organizations. Mandela was released on February 11, 1990, at age 71 after 27 years in prison. ANC officials elected Mandela deputy president in March 1990, under ailing president, Oliver Tambo. Between June 5, 1991 and June 17, 1991, the government repealed the pillars of apartheid, the Land Act of 1913, the Group Areas Act of 1950 and Population Registration Act of 1950, (the most infamous, which had authorized the registration by race of newborn babies and immigrants). Most international sanctions were lifted soon after the Population Registration Act, Group Areas Act, and Land Acts were repealed. In mid-1992 due to escalating violence, by IFP supporters on ANC sympathizers in Boipatong delayed the process of negotiation for elections. On March 5, 1993, Chris Hani, the popular general secretary of the South African Communist Party (SACP), was murdered threatening the process again. On April 12, 1994, a team headed by former British foreign secretary Lord Carrington and former United States secretary of state Henry Kissinger attempted in vain to break the logjam that was keeping the IFP out of the elections. However, on April 19, Buthelezi--under intense pressure from trusted local and international figures—including a Kenyan diplomat professor Washington Okumu, relented and agreed to allow the IFP to be placed on the ballot. When the elections finally took place on schedule, beginning on April 26, 1994, ANC won 62.6 percent of the vote; the NP, 20.4 percent; and the IFP, 10.5 percent. Mandela was unanimously elected president by the National Assembly on May 9, 1994, in Cape Town. He was inaugurated on May 10 at ceremonies in Pretoria. Key South African Nationalists:
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The Lyttelton Constitution.
- A multi- racial Council of Ministers to replace the executive council, which would include one African (B.A. Ohanga, minister for community development and African affairs), two Asians and three Europeans. For the first time, Africans were represented with members with executive powers.
- Lifting the ban on African political Associations. This was done in 1955 though only Africans were allowed to form local (district –based) political organizations. Tom Mboya formed the Nairobi People’s convention Party while D. Mwanyumba formed the Taita African Democratic Union. John Kebaso formed the Abagusii Association, Argwings Kodhek formed the Kenya National Congress and John Keen the Maasai Front.
- Africans were able to take part in elections of 1957. /it proposed multi-racial elections. However, other than race-pegged rules for participation in the 1956/57 elections, Voting qualification for Africans were based on income, property and education
- Proposed direct representation of Africans in the LEGCO. In march 1957, the African elections to the Legco were held and Tom Mboya(Nairobi), Masinde Muliro( Northern Nyanza), Oginga Odinga(Central Nyanza), Lawrence Ogunda(south Nyanza), Ronald Ngala( Coast ), Daniel Arap Moi( Rift Valley), James Miumi(Ukambani) and Bernard Mate (central) were elected.
Demands of AEMO after formation.
- They contested the fewer African positions in the LegCo by condemning the Lyttelton constitution. While elected members were 29, nominated members were 30, majority of who were Europeans.
- They protested the rigid voter qualification requirements imposed on Africans and demanded that every African of 21 years and above be allowed to vote, regardless of education or income.
- They demanded that registration of voters be done on a common roll.
- They called for the end of a State of Emergency.
Role played by AEMO in the struggle for independence up to 1963.
- They formed pressure groups to demand for greater political rights for Africans. e.g., formation of AEMO.
- They formed the core team, which pressurized for independence.
- They made known the grievances of Africans in International Fora.
- They networked with other African nationalists elsewhere e.g. in Ghana and Nigeria to hasten achievement of independence in Kenya.
- They fought for the release of detained nationalists e.g. Kenyatta.
- They formed he national political parties e.g. KANU and KADU, which led the country to independence.
- They educated and created awareness among the masses about the nationalists struggle.
- They took part in the formulation of the independence constitution.
The Lennox-Boyd Constitution.
- An increase by six LegCo Seats for Africans to bring their total representation to 14 seats.
- A special membership in the LegCo, with four members from each race, who were to elected by other members of the LegCo.
- An increase of the number of African ministers to two.
Acted of Betrayal became evident among Africans when Musa Amalemba and Wanyutu Waweru accepted the special seats appointment and even Amalemba went ahead to appointed the second African Minister for Housing in 1958.
Other developments in 1959 included;
- The White moderates led by Michael Blundell (who resigned as minister of agriculture) formed the New Party of Kenya (NPK). He was backed by 46 non-African members of the LegCo for his ideas of multi-racialism.
- The white extremists led by Captain Briggs formed the United Party (UP) demanding for the abolishing of the LegCo and replacing it with regional assemblies. This was aimed at preserving the white highlands as one regional assembly for European benefits.
- Increased divisions on AEMO between radicals and moderates .Ngala, Moi, Mate, Towett and Nyagah resigned from AEMO to form the Kenya National Party (KNP) advocating multi-racialism. This party was interestingly joined by all Arab and Asian members.
- The radicals led by Mboya, Odinga and Gikonyo Kiano formed the Kenya Independent Movement (KIM) that was exclusively for African membership. They demanded convening of a full constitutional conference to discuss Kenya’s future and release of Jomo Kenyatta.
The Lancaster House Conferences.
The First Lancaster House Conference (1960)
The conference came up with the following compromise decisions;
- The 12 elective seats In the LegCo would remain intact.
- There were to 33 open seats in the LegCo, which were to be vied for on a common roll.
- Another 20 seats would be reserved – 10 of these for Europeans, 8 for Asians and 2 for Arabs.
- The composition of the Council of Ministers was to be altered to incorporate 4 Africans, 3 Europeans and 1 Asian.
- The conference authorized the formation of countrywide political parties for Africans. KANU and KANU were formed.
- Ronald Ngala- Minister for Labour, Social Security and Adult Education.
- Julius Gikonyo Kiano- Minister for Commerce and Industry.
- Musa Amalemba- Minister for Housing, Common Services, Probation and Approved Schools.
- James Nzaui Miumi- Minister for Health and Welfare.
- The Kalenjin Political Alliance of Taita Towett.
- The Coast African Political Union of Ronald Ngala.
- The Kenya African People’s Party of Masinde Muliro.
When Kenyatta came on 21st August 1961, Kariuki Njiiri offered his Murang’a seat to Kenyatta to enable him join LegCo.
The second Lancaster conference (1962)
KANU delegation was led by Jomo Kenyatta while Ngala led the KADU group. KANU conceded many KADU grounds to enable success of the negotiations.
Main provisions of the independence constitution of Kenya.
- The independence constitution provided for a regional/majimbo government with each region having a regional assembly and president
- It also provided for a bicameral parliament consisting of the senate and the house of representatives/upper house and lower house.
- The constitution stipulated that the Prime Minister was to be head of Government and Queen the Head of State, represented by the Governor General.
- The constitution recommended a multiparty system of government and the party with the majority of seats forming the government.
- It contained the Bill of Rights, which protected the individual’s rights.
On 12 December, Kenya attained full independence. On 12th December 1964, Kenya became a republic with Kenyatta becoming an executive president.
Social and Economic Developments during the Colonial Period in Kenya
THE CONSTRUCTION OF EAST AFRICAN RAILWAY
The railway construction works commenced in Mombasa in 1896. By 1901, the railway had reached Kisumu (then Port Florence) passing through Nairobi in 1899.Numerous feeder lines were later laid down as follows;
The Nairobi –Thika Branch(1914), Konza – Magadi (1915), Voi- Moshi(1918), Rongai- Solai (1925), Eldoret-Kitale(1926), Eldoret- Jinja (1927), Gilgil-Nyahururu(1929), Thika- Nanyuki(1930) and Kisumu – Butere(1930)
In 1948, the Kenya Uganda Railway had been linked with the Tanganyika network to become the East African Railways.
Problems experienced during the construction of the Uganda railway.
- There was insufficient labour since African labour force was not forthcoming. In the case of the Akamba and the Maasai, they were forcefully recruited.
- The climate of the interior was not suitable for the European labour force. The Europeans constantly fell ill, thus interfering with construction progress.
- The Arab rebellion under Mbaruk Rashid between 1895 –96 at the coast delayed the railway construction.
- There was an additional expense of constructing special jetties since Mombasa port was not large enough.
- The Man-eaters of Tsavo created danger and havoc to the construction works.
- The rift valley terrain was difficult. It was rugged with many hills and escarpments thus causing difficulties in construction.
- Hostility of some Kenyan communities to intruders e.g. the Nandi who vandalized the railway and telegraph lines.
- Insufficient building material since most of them came from Europe and their delivery often delayed,
The effects of railway construction.
- It led to development of European settler farming in order to make the railway pay for its construction.
- There was rampant land alienation. The colonial government alienated African land for railway construction forcing communities like the Maasai and Nandi to move into reserves.
- There was rise of wage labour for the railway and later for the settler farmers.
- It led to growth of urban centres along the railway line e.g. Nairobi.
- Railway construction promoted economic growth of the East African region. This is because farm produce and other commercial products could easily reach market.
- It led to rise of large Asian settlement since many Indians were employed as railway workers. This Asians boosted trade in east Africa.
- It led to development of other forms of infrastructure like the roads and telecommunication lines. This stimulated trade development.
- It led to transfer of the administrative capital from Mombasa in 1905 to Nairobi.
- When the railway reached Kisumu in 1902, it led to major changes to the administrative boundaries within East African region. Initially, the western region up to Naivasha was part of Uganda.
- The railway became a major revenue source for the colonial authorities.
- It facilitated the establishment of colonial rule in Kenya since it was possible for rapid movement of troops.
- It facilitated the cultural and social interaction among the different races.
- The railway made rural-urban migration and the resultant enterprises such as hawking and charcoal –selling possible.
- Other forms of transport and communication developed and expanded along the railway line. For example roads and telecommunications.
- Christian missionaries were able to move into the interior, where they established mission schools.
Settler Crop cultivation
1) Coffee.
Coffee was first introduced by the Roman Catholic Fathers of St. Austin’s Mission near Nairobi in 1889. It required plenty of farm inputs in terms of chemicals and labour. therefore was a preserve of wealthy European settlers.
Coffee Planters Corporation was founded in 1908 by Lord Delamere’s Efforts, and led to the spread in the growing of coffee. By 1913, coffee had become the leading cash crop in Kenya grown mainly in Murang’a, Thika and Kiambu. Africans were unfortunately not allowed to grow coffee until 1937
Reasons why Africans in Kenya were not allowed to grow coffee before 1937.
- a) Europeans wanted to continue getting cheap African labour for their farms. This could not be available if Africans were allowed to earn some money through growing of coffee.
- b) European settlers did not want to compete with Africans in coffee growing. They feared that it would limit market for their produce.
- c) The settlers claimed that Africans did not have knowledge of growing coffee. They claimed that African participation in cash crop growing would lead to low quality products.
- d) They feared that diseases would spread from African farms to settler plantations.
- e) European settlers claimed that African farmers would produce low quality coffee due to inadequate resources.
It was introduced in Kenya in 1903 by Lord Delamere who experimented on his Njoro farm. It was however until 1912, when a more resistant variety was developed, that wheat growing took root in Kenya.
In 1908, Lord Delamere set up Unga Ltd which boosted wheat farming in Kenya. It was grown in the Nakuru and Uasin Gishu areas.
Like coffee, wheat farming was the preserve of wealthy European settlers from Australia, Canada, Britain and South Africa. Africans began to grow wheat only after independence.
3) Sisal.
It was introduced in Kenya from Tanganyika in 1893 by Richard Hindorf, a german Doctor. Initially, it was cultivated around Thika in 1904. By 1920, it had become the second –largest income-earning crop after coffee.
The main sisal growing areas included Baringo, Koibatek, Ol Donyo Sabuk, Ruiru, Thika, Voi, Taita and Taveta.
Africans began growing coffee in 1964 though its growth declined due to the completion it faced from synthetic fibre.
4) Tea.
Tea was introduced in Kenya in 1903 around Limuru by Messrs Caine Brothers. It was until 1925 when tea began being grown successful with large tea estates being established by tea companies like Brooke Bond and Africa Highland from India.
The main tea growing areas were Nandi, Kericho, Sotik, Nakuru, Murang’a and Kiambu.
Stock rearing.
Lord Delamere carried out many experiments in sheep and cattle rearing at his Equator Ranch in Njoro though the Maasai raids in his farm and cattle diseases frustrated his efforts.
After cross-breeding exotic types with local stock, he came up with more resistant variety The government also set up an experimental livestock farm in Naivasha.
In 1925, the Kenya Cooperative Creameries was established due to Delamere’s efforts. Later, the Uplands Bacon Factory was established near Limuru to promote pig rearing. In 1930, the Kenya Farmers Association (KFA) was established
SETTLER FARMING AND COLONIAL LAND POLICIESAs a means of raising revenue to meet the cost of administering the Kenya colony and maintain the Uganda railway, the colonial government encouraged the influx of white settlers to the ‘white Highlands’.The administration did this by;
Why the colonial government encouraged white settlement in Kenya.The reasons why the colonial administration led by Sir Charles Eliot (1900- 1904) and later Sir Edward Northey encouraged settler farming in the white highlands were;
Factors which promoted settler farming.
Problems experienced by settlers.
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Settler Crop cultivation
The main crops cultivated were coffee, wheat, tea and sisal.1) Coffee.
Coffee was first introduced by the Roman Catholic Fathers of St. Austin’s Mission near Nairobi in 1889. It required plenty of farm inputs in terms of chemicals and labour. therefore was a preserve of wealthy European settlers.Coffee Planters Corporation was founded in 1908 by Lord Delamere’s Efforts, and led to the spread in the growing of coffee. By 1913, coffee had become the leading cash crop in Kenya grown mainly in Murang’a, Thika and Kiambu. Africans were unfortunately not allowed to grow coffee until 1937
Reasons why Africans in Kenya were not allowed to grow coffee before 1937.
- Europeans wanted to continue getting cheap African labour for their farms. This could not be available if Africans were allowed to earn some money through growing of coffee.
- European settlers did not want to compete with Africans in coffee growing. They feared that it would limit market for their produce.
- The settlers claimed that Africans did not have knowledge of growing coffee. They claimed that African participation in cash crop growing would lead to low quality products.
- They feared that diseases would spread from African farms to settler plantations.
- European settlers claimed that African farmers would produce low quality coffee due to inadequate resources.
2) Wheat.
It was introduced in Kenya in 1903 by Lord Delamere who experimented on his Njoro farm. It was however until 1912, when a more resistant variety was developed, that wheat growing took root in Kenya.In 1908, Lord Delamere set up Unga Ltd which boosted wheat farming in Kenya. It was grown in the Nakuru and Uasin Gishu areas. Like coffee, wheat farming was the preserve of wealthy European settlers from Australia, Canada, Britain and South Africa. Africans began to grow wheat only after independence.
3) Sisal.
It was introduced in Kenya from Tanganyika in 1893 by Richard Hindorf, a german Doctor. Initially, it was cultivated around Thika in 1904. By 1920, it had become the second –largest income-earning crop after coffee.The main sisal growing areas included Baringo, Koibatek, Ol Donyo Sabuk, Ruiru, Thika, Voi, Taita and Taveta.
Africans began growing coffee in 1964 though its growth declined due to the completion it faced from synthetic fibre.
4) Tea.
Tea was introduced in Kenya in 1903 around Limuru by Messrs Caine Brothers. It was until 1925 when tea began being grown successful with large tea estates being established by tea companies like Brooke Bond and Africa Highland from India.The main tea growing areas were Nandi, Kericho, Sotik, Nakuru, Murang’a and Kiambu.
Stock rearing.
Lord Delamere carried out many experiments in sheep and cattle rearing at his Equator Ranch in Njoro though the Maasai raids in his farm and cattle diseases frustrated his efforts.After cross-breeding exotic types with local stock, he came up with more resistant variety The government also set up an experimental livestock farm in Naivasha.
In 1925, the Kenya Cooperative Creameries was established due to Delamere’s efforts. Later, the Uplands Bacon Factory was established near Limuru to promote pig rearing. In 1930, the Kenya Farmers Association (KFA) was established
Colonial land policies in Kenya.
To empower the settlers to take up more arable land in Kenya, the Legislative council passed the following Land Acts or Ordinances;
- The Indian Acquisition Act (1896). it empowered the authorities to take over land for the railway, government construction and public utilities.
- The Land Regulations Act (1897). It allowed the government to offer a certificate of occupation and a lease of 99 years. This Act encouraged settlers to take up land left vacant by the Agikuyu due to drought and famine.
- The East African Land Order in Council (1901). It defined crown land as all public land which was not private. The government could take up any land at will, sell it or lease it for use by settlers.
- The Crown Land Ordinance (1902). It allowed the government to sell or lease crown land to Europeans at 2 rupees per 100 acres or rent at 15 rupees per 100 acres annually.
- The Maasai Agreement (1904). It led to creation of the Ngong and Laikipia reserves while the settlers took up Maasai land for livestock farming. For example Lord Delamere in Nakuru.
- The Elgin Pledge of 1906. The government through the British Secretary of State, Lord Elgin confirmed that the Highlands were reserved for settlers. This barred the Asian attempts to buy land in the highlands.
- The second Maasai Agreement of 1911. The Maasai were pushed out of the fertile Laikipia reserve to pave way for more European settlement and large scale farming.
- The Crown Land Ordinance (1915). This provided for land –registration scheme for settlers. It defined crown land as land occupied by and reserved for Africans who could be evicted any time. Farm sizes wee increased from 5,000 to 7,500 acres.
- The Kenya Annexation Order in Council (1920). It announced that Africans were tenants of the crown even in the reserves.
- The Land Commission (1924). It fixed boundaries of the reserves, which were later legalized in 1926.
- The Native Trust Ordinance (1930). It stated that African reserves belonged t the Africans permanently.
- The Carter Commission (1932). It fixed the boundaries of the white highlands, leading to population pressure in the African reserves. All Africans were removed from the highlands into the reserves.
- The Kenya Highlands Order in Council (1939). It fixed boundaries of the white highlands and reserved them permanently and exclusively for Europeans.
Effects of the colonial land policies.
- The displaced Africans were confined to native reserves thus leading to congestion/overuse of land. By 1914, settlers like Lord Delamere and Captain Crogan owned 100,000 and 220,000 acres of land, respectively, at the expense of African congestion in the reserves.
- Africans who lost their land became poor. Many Africans became squatters and lived in misery and hopelessness.
- The situation in the reserves and the landlessness forced to supply labour in settler farms for wages in order to pay taxes.
- The displaced Africans moved to towns looking for employment. Their movement to towns led to growth of urban centres.
- The traditional socio-economic set-up of the Africans was disrupted. Communities could no longer migrate in search of better lands and pasture. Family roles changed as women increasingly took over headship of families while men sought for paid employment.
- The large European farms suffered acute shortage of labour as many Africans were unwilling to work on them.
- It led to the introduction of the Kipande System enforced by the Native Registration Ordinances of 1915 and 1920, to prevent the African labourers from deserting their duties on European farms.
- Taxes were imposed on Africans and were to be paid only in monetary form. This was meant to compel Africans seek for wage employment.
- The reserving of the highlands for the whites only denied Indians access to agricultural land, compelling them to resort to businesses and residences in urban areas.
- Loss of land led to bitterness and made Africans later to form political organizations to demand for their land/spread of nation
THE DEVONSHIRE WHITE PAPER.
The Mandate of the League of Nations compelled Britain, just like any other colonial authority to institute reforms that would involve addressing African grievances. Governor Edward Northey who had given many concessions to the settlers was recalled to Britain in 1922. Other reforms that were instituted were;- Abandonment of Racial segregation policy in Kenya except in the highlands.
- Allowing Asians to elect four members to the Legco, which was initially settler-dominated. This however was not done until 1933.
In March 1923, settlers in a form of protest to these reforms sent a delegation to London to try to settle scores with the Secretary for Colonies, the Duke of Devonshire.
The fundamental set of principles that were issued in this meeting are what came to be known as the Devonshire White Paper.
Factors that led to the issuing of the Devonshire white paper.
- The influence of “The Dual Mandate”. This was a book of the League of Nations that had regulations concerning colonial mandates. Britain was committed to the principle of trusteeship whereby she was interested on its African population than European settlement
- The rise of race conflicts i.e. Africans versus European dominion and European versus Asian conflicts. The Indians were opposed to the privileged position of European settlers.
- The banning of racial segregation .The decision by the colonial government to ban racial segregation apart from the white highlands only, disappointed the settlers who wanted the ban lifted hence they sent a delegation to London to see the colonial secretary.
- The African general resentment. Their resentment was on land alienation, forced labour, taxation system, kipande system, low wages and no political representation.
Terms of the Devonshire White Paper.
- White highlands were reserved for European settlement only
- Indians would be allowed to elect five members to LEGCO not on a common roll, but on a communal roll.
- Racial segregation was abolished in all residential areas.
- Restriction on Indian immigration was lifted
- A nominated missionary was to represent African interests in the LEGCO.
- The European Settlers’ demand for self government in Kenya was rejected.
- African interests were declared paramount before those of immigrant races if there was a conflict.
- The settlers were to maintain their representation in the LEGCO.
- The Colonial Secretary was given mandate to exercise strict control over the affairs of the colony.
Implications of the Devonshire white paper.
The issuance of the paper left the Settlers, Asians and Africans more dissatisfied than ever before as follows;On the part of the settlers;
- The Indian call for equality, to them, was unrealistic since they could not stomach the mixing of Oriental and Western cultures in Kenya.
- Since European culture was superior, they felt that racial segregation was justified in all spheres.
- To the settlers, instead of giving in the Indians’ grievances, they would rather give in to African demands since they had moral rights to protect African interests.
- To them, the white highlands were primarily theirs and they had a legal claim over them. On the Asian part;
- They wanted equality of all races instead of settler dominance in Kenya especially pertaining to settlement in the white highlands.
- They opposed policies on residential segregation and restriction on their immigration. The government was inviting more settlers to check Indian immigration into Kenya by this time.
- They wanted direct and adequate representation in the Legco based on a common roll free election (not communal roll).
- They objected separate taxation for Europeans and Indians and segregated education. The Devonshire White paper was therefore viewed as the product of the struggle between the Asians and the Europeans. The paper made the Asians join their African comrades in the struggle for freedom, especially in the trade Union Movement.
- Settler dominance In Kenyan affairs continued upto 1963 despite recommendations done in the white paper.
Results of the Devonshire white paper.
- The Devonshire white paper saved Kenya from becoming another Rhodesia or South Africa. The European demand for self-government was rejected.
- In theory, settler’s dominance was weakened but in practice, the white paper upheld the dominance of the settlers more than that of the Africans e.g. segregation in residential areas in towns continued, they dominated the economy because they retained the white highlands.
- The paper did not satisfy the Asians since they did not gain access to the white highlands.
- Although many Asians came to Kenya, the Asians did not achieve equality with Europeans through a Common Roll. The Indian congress refused to cooperate with the government; they declined to hold elections for the Legislative Council seats offered to them. No Asian seats, five in all were occupied until 1933.
- Africans were to be represented by a nominated missionary, John Arthur, instead of representation by an African. For the first time, Africans were represented in the Legco.
- The Devonshire White Paper Benefited the Africans by declaring/recognizing Kenya as an African country where African interests should be paramount
- It failed to resolve African land and labour grievances.
- It sensitized the Africans on their plight leading to formation of political parties.
URBANIZATION
Towns that were already in existence before the advent of colonialism include Mombasa, Lamu and Malindi. Many other towns in the interior grew during the colonial period.Factors which led to the establishment of urban centres in Kenya during the colonial period.
- Development of transport network. Construction of roads and the Uganda railway led to growth of some towns as transport terminus or along the transport lines e.g. Nairobi, Voi, Nakuru and Kisumu.
- Growth of trade in the interior of Kenya. Most towns began as trading centres for Indian commercial entrepreneurs. E.g Machakos, Nakuru, Kisumu, Nairobi and Voi.
- Development of administrative posts. The colonial government established administrative posts in various parts of the country. These posts later grew into urban centres. E.g Fort Hall, Embu, Kapsabet, Meru and Garissa.
- Rural-urban migration. The movement to urban areas by African labourers from various parts of the country led to further growth of urban centres.
- Development of agriculture. Settler farming led to growth of towns like Eldoret which began as agricultural collection centres.
- Development of Agro-based industries like flour mills, meat-processing plants and sawmills which attracted labourers from all parts of the country to be transformed into urban centres.
- Development of mining activities. This stimulated development of industries in the mining areas leading to urban growth. E.g. Kakamega, Athi River and Magadi.
Why Africans moved to urban areas in colonial Kenya.
- The Urban centres had recreational facilities and social amenities which attracted the Africans, fed up with hardship conditions in the reserves.
- The Africans expected Job opportunities with better wages in the towns where there were industries as compared to the rural areas.
- Some Africans were escaping from forced labour and taxation.
- The African entrepreneurs wanted to take advantage of the wider markets in the towns to escape poverty in the crowded reserves.
Ways through which the colonial government controlled Africans migration to urban centers.
- Taking headcount of those who were supposed to live in urban centres
- Enacting strict rules about migration into urban centre
- Creation of African reserves
- Ensuring that only those who had specific activities to undertake in the urban centres lived there
- Introduction of kipande system.
Positive effects of urbanization during the colonial period.
- It promoted interaction between people of diverse ethnic and racial backgrounds, who exchanged ideas and experiences. The centres became seedbeds of political activities that eventually culminated into the struggle for independence.
- Urbanization promoted national integration and instilled a sense of nationhood among Kenyans as it watered down the differences and prejudices between communities.
- The welfare associations formed by Africans in urban areas, like the Bara Association in Mombasa for all hinterland people, united them for a common cause by lessening ethnic hostilities.
- Through sporting and cultural activities that took place in towns, relationships between different ethnic groups and races were cemented.
- Many Africans benefited from the numerous employment opportunities as shoe shiners and repairers, charcoal sellers, hawking in industries and in European homes.
- Due to the Abundance of labour and raw materials, industries in urban areas expanded further.
Negative effects of urbanization during the colonial period in Kenya.
- There were inadequate housing facilities to meet the demands of the people. This led to overcrowding especially in slums/shanties led to the outbreak of diseases. Lack of planning of housing led to poor drainage and sanitation facilities.
- Africans in urban areas were subjected to racial discrimination. The social services provided to the Africans were inadequate and of poor quality. Even houses in towns were occupied according to the various racial groups, with Europeans enjoying the best facilities.
- Increased population in urban centres led to serious water shortages.
- Establishment of industries in urban centres led to pollution of the environment, which affected the health of the inhabitants.
- There was rampant unemployment as urban centres could not cope with the large influx of labourers and increased competition for the available jobs.
- Many unemployed people in urban areas got involved in social vices / crimes such as drug abuse, alcoholism and promiscuity, due to desperation and poverty.
- Africans working in urban centres received low wages with employers taking advantage of the high supply of labour, which affected their standards of living.
- The mass rural-urban migration brought about intensification of migration regulations to control the numbers of African migrants. The Kipande system became stricter.
- Economic activities in the rural areas were disrupted by the absence of men who had moved to urban areas. Women took up men’s roles.
EDUCATION AND HEALTH
Education.
Formal education in colonial Kenya was provided by four groups;
- The Christian Missionaries.
- The Colonial government through local councils.
- The Africans themselves.
- Community organizations(Asians)
Major milestones in the development of education in Kenya during the colonial period.
Initially, the provision of education was the preserve of the missionaries. For example, the Church Missionary Society (CMS) pioneered by setting up a school at Rabai in 1844 and another in Mombasa in 1873.Features of Missionary education
- It was elementary. The subjects taught included religion, writing, reading, reading, hygiene and arithmetic.
- It was industrial and technical in approach, aiming at training Africans to be carpenters, masons, agricultural assistants and shoe repairers.
- It was denominational and aimed at inculcating doctrines of a particular church in the learners.
Objectives of Missionary education.
- To impart in the Africans Agricultural Skills in order to promote settler farming.
- To give the Africans basic technical skills to improve their industrial knowledge.
- To train some Africans as Catechists to enhance the spread of Christianity.
- To offer Africans basic literacy and numeracy to read the bible and do simple arithmetic. Education development in Kenya in the period between 1904 and 1963 was facilitated by the following factors;
- The WWI ex-soldiers experiences which convinced them of the advantage of higher education.
- Increase in African nationalism that demanded for better education for Africans.
- The need to produce better and more skilled manpower for the future independent Kenya.
- Primary education had produced qualified children who needed higher education.
In 1918, the education commission made the following far-reaching recommendations to the government in line with the Fraser Commission report of 1908 which had recommended a racially –segregated system of education;
- Provision of technical education to Africans.
- Maintenance of racially segregated Schools.
- More cooperation between the colonial government and the missionaries.
- Appeals for grants-in-aid for mission schools.
- That there should be a uniform system of education in all government and missionary schools.
- That sufficient training for teachers and related personnel should be enhanced by establishing colleges.
- That schools should be built in the rural areas. This was done through the education ordinance of 1924.
The 1924 Education Ordinance created an advisory committee on African education. The representation to the committee was missionaries, colonial officials and settlers. The same year, more schools were built with the assistance of the newly formed Local Native Councils. In 1931, another Education Ordinance helped in the establishment of Kakamega GAS In 1932, Kisii GAS in 1934, and Kabianga. Finance for African education was to come from the colonial government.
From 1925, the missionaries began providing advanced level education to Africans. Initially secondary education was the preserve of the Europeans.
In 1926, the Alliance of protestant missionaries set up Alliance High School. Catholics established Kabaa in 1927 and Mang’u School in Thika in 1930 for Africans. In 1938 and 1939,
Maseno and St. Mary’s Yala were started as secondary schools.
Achievements of missionaries in provision of education.
- They designed a curriculum with emphasis on agriculture, tailoring, masonry and carpentry.
- They established the first secondary schools for Africans such as Alliance (1926), Kabaa (1927), Maseno (1938 and Yala (1939).
- They trained African teachers to man the ‘Bush Schools’ (schools found in remote areas consisting of mud huts with grass-thatched roofs) and teach in independent schools.
- They offered the necessary financial and material support to make these schools operational.
Schools for Indians include the Asian Railway School (1904) and other schools developed by the government in Mombasa and Nairobi. Also community-based schools like Allidina Visram and the Arya Samaj Foundation. Hospital School became the first multi-racial school in 1953.
In 1934, a District Education Board was created to plan education in districts, establish primary schools and manage the schools.
In 1949, the Beecher Committee was instituted to look into African education From 1961, Asian and African pupils begun to join European schools.
Provision of elementary education by Africans was pioneered by John Owalo of the Nomiya Luo Mission in 1910.
University Education.
Africans in Kenya got opportunity for university education at Makerere which was established in 1922 initially as a technical college and became an affiliate of the university of London on 1949.In 1954, the Royal Technical College, Nairobi began to offer higher education and became an affiliate of the university of London in 1959 to offer the first degree courses in 1961 when it became known as the royal college.
Community based education.
This was done mainly by Asian families of Ismaili and Arya Samaj for the Indian traders in urban areas. Allidina Visram, A wealthy man, also established centres of higher education.African Role in educational provision.
Africans began their own schools for the following reasons;- They wanted to protect certain cultural practices like feral circumcision and polygamy.
- They wanted to access higher education, since the government and missionaries were only offering them technical and industrial education, so that to be able to compete for the white-collar jobs with other races.
- They would also use the schools as a forum to air their grievances and to create political awareness in their community.
In 1934, the Kikuyu Independent Schools Association (KISA) and the Kikuyu Karinga Education Association founded more schools
In 1938, Githunguri Teacher Training College had been established under Mbiyu Koinange.
Health.
Developments in provision of health services in colonial Kenya.
Initially, just like in the case of education, the Christian missionaries were concerned with provision of health services in colonial Kenya. The colonial government was majorly concerned with eradication of plague, malaria and sleeping disease which the Pioneer European settlers suffered from. Preventive medicine was later introduced to help stop various infections of killer diseases.The Church of Scotland Mission and the Church Missionary Society soon opened medical facilities in Kikuyu (1902), Kaimosi (1903), Kaloleni (1904) and Maseno (1905).
Dr, Arthur, a missionary and pioneer doctor, put up the Thogoto Mission Hospital in 1907 and the facility exists prominently up to today as the Kikuyu Eye Unit Hospital and Kikuyu Rehabilitation Centre.
Objectives of the Health centres.
- To eradicate diseases such as smallpox, malaria and sleeping sickness.
- To train medical personnel to handle western medicine.
- To improve health and hygiene for Africans and Asians in towns where they lived in overcrowded areas lacking in sanitary facilities.
After the opening of the Alliance medical college in 1920 and the establishment of a Medical training centre under the Nurses and Midwives Ordinance many
African school leavers trained as laboratory and pharmacy assistants.
A Public Health Ordinance was passed in 1921 giving the Medical Department powers to institute measures for the control of malaria and prevent communicable diseases. As a follow up to the 1921 Ordinance, new health units were established in the four different African reserves.
The Rural Dispensary System was established to supplement the missionary efforts in provision of healthcare. Health centres were built in rural areas as part of the colonial government efforts to improve health facilities.
After 1945, the Development and Research Authority (DARA) gave 47,000 sterling pounds for health care and improvement of health services.
In 1949, the Bureau of Medical Research was set up as an agency of the East African High Commission.
In 1950 King George IV hospital (today the Kenyatta National Hospital) was started as a hospital for Africans and in 1951, it started training female nurses.
By 1962, there were over 100 rural health centres in the country.
Role of Africans in Health Provision.
Africans were more preoccupied with superstitions and over-reliance on traditional medicine which negated their participation in provision healthcare.The traditional medicinemen were dismissed by missionaries despite their wealthy knowledge on herbal Medicine. Today, many people rely on traditional herbalists to compliment healthcare provision.
The Peace Treaties.
In January 1918, Woodrow Wilson, President of the USA, outlined, in his speech to the congress, the ‘fourteen points’ that were essential in maintenance of world peace.Among these were three great principles that formed the basis of world peace namely;
- Self-determination of all peoples, i.e, the right of peoples all over the world to determine their own fate.
- The need to make public all diplomatic and international agreements.
- The need to establish a League of Nations which would provide an avenue for discussing all international problems, protect small states from aggression by large ones.
- Lloyd George( PM of Britain)
- George Clemenceau (PM of France)
- Woodrow Wilson (President of USA)
- Vittorio Orlando (PM of Italy)
- The Treaty of Versailles with Germany (28th June 1919)
- Treaty of St. Germaine with Austria (10th September 1919)
- Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria (27th November 1919)
- Treaty of Trianon with Hungary (4th June 1920)
- Treaty of Sevres in 1920 and Lausanne in 1923 with Turkey.
The Treaty of Versailles.
It should be noted that all the above treaties were generally referred to as the Treaty of Versailles.Terms of the Versailles Treaty of 1919.
- The treaty declared Germany an aggressor who was supposed to pay reparations and whose military capability was to be reduced.
- She lost all her colonial passions with the African colonies being taken from her and put under supervision of the League of Nations.
- The treaty of St. Germaine provided for the creation of Yugoslavia, Bosnia, Herzegovina and Malta as mandated territories.
- Germany was totally disarmed and only allowed to retain a force of 100,000 soldiers and her navy was disbanded. Military conscription was banned in Germany.
Germany’s population and size was reduced as Austria, with a large German population was allowed to remain independent. Italy acquired Stria, the Italian-speaking region of Austria. - Rhineland was to be permanently demilitarized. Germany troops were not allowed in the region.
- By the treaty of Versailles, Germany lost the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to France.
- The treaty established the League of Nation.
Failures of the treaty of Versailles.
- The treaty handed Germany a heavy punishment as if she was the only one to blame for World War 1. This provoked deep resentment and bitterness among the German nationals.
- The treaty ignored the interests of the colonial people. The former colonial possessions of Germany and turkey were handed over to France and Britain in total disregard to the African grievances during the Versailles conference.
- The treaty failed to carter for the interests of the minority in Europe. The new republic of Austria was forbidden from merging with Germany though a national vote was for the merger.
- Italy was given a raw deal in the settlement. She was only given Stria, an Italian-speaking region formerly belonging to Austria.
- Though the treaty proposal for the formation of the League of Nations came from the USA president Wilson, the US constitution prohibited commitment to such an Organization, whose membership required a nation to help a future victim of aggression,.
RESULTS OF WORLD WAR I
- Nationalist movements in Asia and Africa grew in strength and number after the war and a sense of patriotism arose.
- USA gained an upper hand in the post war European affairs. She emerged as a leading world power.
- German military capability was reduced on land and sea and heavy indemnity imposed on her. She lost all her colonies, which were made mandated territories of the League of Nations.
- The end of the war marked the beginning of the decline of western imperialism. As early as 1920, there was a possibility of independence for colonial countries. The war encouraged imperial powers to give more freedom to their subjects.
- The end of the war witnessed the creation of new states e.g. Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Poland and Finland.
- Germany and Italy fell in the hands of dictators e.g. Mussolini and Hitler.
- The war Created bitter feelings and mistrust among the countries that fought in the war. This continued until the outbreak of the Second World War.
- It led to the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 in Russia as radicals took over government there.
- It led to a change of government in Britain.
- There was greater use of motor vehicles and aircraft, which facilitated transport.
- The art of surgery improved.
- Between 1914 and 1918, European factories were destroyed and business brought down hence heavy losses.
- There was massive destruction of property and infrastructure.
- It led to the great depression 1920 to 1921, which affected economies worldwide.
- It led to increased taxation by he colonial authorities to meet war and post-war demands.
THE LEAGUE OF NATIONSOrigin and organization of the League of Nations. The League of Nations was established by the victors of the First World War in 1920 at the treaty of Versailles with the main aim of preventing the occurrence of another war. The idea of its formation was mooted by Woodrow Wilson, the US president who was supported by Lord Robert Cecil of Britain, Jan Smuts of South Africa and Leon Bourgeois of France. The League of Nation came into force during the first meeting in London Britain, on 10th January 1920. Reasons for the formation of the League of Nations in 1920.
The Council.It was made up of permanent and Non-permanent members. The permanent members were France, Britain, Italy and Japan. Non permanent members were four, elected by the general assembly.The main role of the council which sat in Geneva was to appoint committees and secretary General with the approval of the majority of the Assembly. It also dealt with disputes amongst member states, reduction of armament, execution of arbitral awards and admittance and expulsion of members. The Assembly. It met once a year at Geneva and was comprised of three delegates from each member state. It elected non-permanent members to the council. The functions of the Assembly included;
The Secretariat.The Secretariat, based in Geneva, consisted of the secretary general and his staff. It was the administrative body of the League of Nations. It kept records of the organization and conducted correspondences including treaties by member states. It implemented thedecisions of the League of Nations. It provided continuity between one meeting of the council or the assembly and the next,The International Court of Justice. Set up between 1920 and 1922, it comprised of eleven judges and four deputy judges elected for nine years by the assembly and the council. It was based at the Hague-Holland. Decisions made by the court were binding on all parties in dispute. International Labour Organization. It consisted of 4 delegates- two for member states and two for workers from each member state. Its main aim was to maintain good working conditions for men, women and children. The Mandates Commission. It had then responsibility of supervising the administration of the trustee colonies. The League of Nations also had several specialized agencies. |
Achievements of the League of Nations.
- The League of Nations, through the Permanent Court of International Justice, maintained international peace and security. E.g. in the city of Danzig in spite of the hostility between the poles and the Germans.
- The League of Nations achieved its objective of treating the minority with humane. The International Office for Refugees, for example, assisted refugees. Victims of the Nazi persecutions were also assisted.
- The league assisted in the administration of the trust territories, through the Mandates Commission. E.g. in Togo, Tanganyika Cameroon and Rwanda-urundi. In addition, the territories acquired from turkey. E.g. Iraq and Palestine.
- The league was able to solve several interstate disputes in a peaceful manner. E.g the frontier dispute between turkey and Iraq over the Mosul province (1924-1926), the dispute between Poland and Germany over northern Silesia.
- The league successfully restored financial stability in Austria following the economic slump in the country after the World War 1.
- It successfully enforced control over the manufacture and sale of arms. It also held disarmament meetings.
- The league ensured signing of peace treaties to promote security in the world. For example, the Locarno treaties of 1925 that settled boundary disputes between Germany and France.
Failures of the League of Nations.
- The League of Nations failed its Prime objective of maintaining world peace in the following ways;
- It failed to solve the Sino-Japanese dispute after Japan invaded Manchuria in China in 1931. Japan after refusing to abide by the League’s demands that it withdraws from the Chinese territory, even pulled out of the league in 1933.
- The Italian invasion of Ethiopia in 1935. Benito Mussolini, rather than accept the League’s verdict that he withdraws Italian troops from Ethiopia, pulled out of the League.
- The League failed to stop German Violation of the terms of the Versailles Treaty. She embarked on a remilitarization programme and established a navy and an airbase.
- Nations continued to make many defensive pacts in total disregard of the Treaty of Versailles.
- Germany invaded other regions such as Poland and Austria between 1936 and 1939, while Russia invaded Finland in 1939 in violation of the League of Nations.
Factors that undermined the effectiveness of the League of Nations.
- Member countries were not willing to take disputes to the international court of justice.
- German was still determined to increase its military strength and continue with its aggression policy.
- Individual nations were more preoccupied with national interests and pride, at the expense of the organization’s interests.
- The Versailles peace settlement resolutions were too harsh to Germany thus leaving the Germans aggrieved and refuse to cooperate with the League of Nations.
- The League of Nations lacked the executive authority to implement its resolutions.
- USA congress refused to ratify the treaty of the League of Nations. This denied the organization diplomatic and economic strength.
- There was shortage of funds to implement the functions of the League of Nations.
- The Appeasement Policy of Britain and France forced them to stand aside and avoid taking a firm action against Japan when she invaded china, Germany when she invaded and occupied Rhineland, and Italy when she attacked Ethiopia.
Their activities and those of Japan began to interfere with prevailing peace in the world. This happened at the time when USA had retreated into isolation leaving the task of maintaining world peace only to Britain and France.
The Second World War involved most countries in the world with millions of people conscripted for service in both the military and war related industries.
Causes of the Second World War.
- Germany’s dissatisfaction based on territorial grievances.
The Versailles treaty of 1919 imposed harsh and humiliating conditions on Germany, which aggrieved the Germans to the level of being ready to go to war again. - The rise of nationalism in Europe.
In Germany, the chancellor, Adolf Hitler who had the desire to dominate the whole world, fuelled it. For example, he encouraged German speakers in Sudetenland, Czechoslovakia to demand independence from Czechoslovakia. Italy under Mussolini invaded Ethiopia, in 1939 to regain her lost glory and national pride after the Adowa defeat I 1896. Syria rose up against France. - Political developments in Europe.
In Italy in 1922, the fascist government under Benito Mussolini came to power. In Germany, Hitler’s Nazi government assumed power in 1933. The Fascist government in Italy emphasized on the regaining of lost glory. The Nazi government began a fresh new policy of aggression. - The economic problems caused by the great depression of 1929 to 1931.
The great slump led to widespread unemployment, declining wages, poverty etc. these led to social discontent and political unrest in many countries of the world. - The failure of Germany to pay reparations.
This was followed by the French invasion of the Ruhr industrial region- a German territory. This led to increased tension. - Weakening of the League of Nations.
Japan left the League of Nations after protest over Manchuria, which she had grabbed, from china. Italy left the League of Nations after Mussolini had grabbed Abyssinia and annexed it against the will of the allies and Ethiopians. Russia invaded Finland in 1939 and the league was unable to intervene. There were many secret treaties among members of the league. - The Spanish civil war (1936-1939).
The republican revolution of 1931 ended the Spanish monarchy. The struggle between the royalists and socialists, however, continued. The European powers took sides in the civil war. France, Britain and Russia supported the royalists. Germany and Italy supported General Franco who was fighting from exile in Morocco. - Growth of military alliances.
Hitler and Mussolini established a military pact in 1936 (The Berlin-Rome Axis). it became the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis with the joining of Japan. The alliance between Russia and Germany to divide Poland widened the gap between them and the allied forces. It created fear and suspicion. - The invasion of Poland by Germany.
This happened in September 1939 was the immediate cause of the war. This upset Britain and France, who stated their intentions of assisting Poland. They declared war on Germany in October 1939.
COURSE OF WORLD WAR 2
The invasion of Poland by German forces on 1st of September 1939 and the subsequent declaration of war against Germany by Britain and France on 3rd of September 1939 marked the beginning of the Second World War.Meanwhile on 17th September 1939, the USSR attacked Poland from the East, as per the secret clause in the Nazi-Soviet act of August 1939. Poland had been overrun by German and Russian forces by 27th September 1939. The country was divided between Russia and Germany.
The phoney war.
This was a period during world war two when no major military operations were undertaken on the western front although war had been declared on Germany by France and Britain. The period lasted eight months from 3rd of September 1939.It was used by the Allied countries to fully mobilise their forces for an attack on Germany since they had not initially been prepared. Hitler on his part did not want to be involved in war in the west since his armies had not fully recovered from the consequences in the east.
During this period, two unsuccessful attempts were made to bring peace;
- On 6th October 1939, Hitler and Stalin of Russia made an attempt to convince the Allies to accept the Nazi Occupation of Poland and make peace.
- On 7th October, King Leopold of Belgium and Queen Wilhelmina of Netherlands appealed to the Axis powers and the Western Allies to make peace.
War in Western Europe.
On 9th April 1940, Hitler launched a sea-borne invasion against Norway after attacking Denmark via land. They were assisted by a Norwegian Nazi sympathiser Vidkund Quisling. The prime minister of Norway and his Ministers fled to London and Hitler established a puppet government in the country.The defeat of British and French forces in Norway sparked off a parliamentary revolution in Britain forcing the PM Neville Chamberlain to resign to be replaced by Sir Winston Churchill.
Germany extended their attack on Luxembourg, Netherlands and Belgium. The Allies were unable to contain the German advance and even retreated to the French port of Dunkirk, marking a major defeat of the allies in Europe.
On 14th June 1940, the Germans captured Paris forcing the new Prime Minister Paul Reynaud to sue for peace with Hitler on 22nd June 1940. Under the peace agreement, The Germans took over Alsace –Lorraine, Northern France and the Atlantic coastline. the French government fled to Vichy, southern France.
Why the French were defeated so quickly.
- The French forces were not psychologically prepared for the war and thus were found divided.
- The French forces were not as well organized as the Germans thus exposing various military weaknesses. For example, the Germans were supported by combat planes which the French did not use.
- Poor communication between the army and the airforce. The French generals failed to coordinate the war properly to the extend of ignoring the fact that the Airforce could have been used to drive German Bombers off.
The battle of Britain determined the future of World War II. It forced Hitler to delay his attacks.
War in North Africa.
WWII in Africa was marked by the Italian successful attack on French and British Somaliland. Under Marshal Graziani, the Italian forces advanced to Egypt though unsuccessful. In June 1942, German forces moved to North Africa to reinforce the Italians.However, British forces led by General Bernard Montgomery moved quickly and captured Malta which would have been used as a base for attack by the Germans.
General Montgomery attacked the Germans at El Alamein in Egypt, forcing them to move to west. On 8th November 1942, British and American forces invaded Morocco and Algeria.
Although the Germans continued fighting in Tunisia, by May 1943, their Army under General Rommel had surrendered.
War in the Balkans.
In August 1940, Hitler Attacked and captured Romania and Bulgaria. In April 1941, Yugoslavia and Greece were taken. Crete was taken in May 1941.On 22nd June 1941, Hitler attacked USSR forcing the Russian troops to retreat. However, he failed to capture Moscow before the onset of winter. In June 1942, the Germans resumed their offensive.
They were finally defeated at the battle of Stalingrad on 31st January 1943 by the Russian Red Army led by Marshal Zhukov. The Germans lost 300,000 men while 100,000 survivors surrendered.
By May 1944, the Russians had pushed the Germans from their territory and were approaching Germany itself.
Why the Germans were defeated during the Russian Invasion.
The German army was fighting in several fronts at the same time as compared to the allies. This lack of concentration in one area allowed the other Russian army to defeat them.The soviet forces employed the scorched earth policy which left very little for the German forces.
The Germans ill-treated the soviet people and exploited their economic resources causing resentment and unity to fight with determination.
Weak leadership by the German military leaders contributed to their defeat.
USA entry into World War II
The Japanese attack on the American great Naval Base at Pearl Harbour on the Hawaiian island is the one incident that dragged USA into WWII.On 8th December 1941, the USA, Britain and the Netherlands declared war on Japan. The Germans and Italians also declared war on the USA. Russia kept off the war in Asia having signed a treaty with Japan.
Japan resisted fiercely. Her air force sank two British battleships on 10th December 1941.She captured Hong Kong, Malaya in Malaysia and took over the great naval base at Singapore. She also occupied Burma, Dutch East Indies, the Philippines and parts of the western pacific islands.
The Japanese forces were repulsed while on their way to Port Moresby, New Guinea in may 1942.
In 1942, Britain used her bases in India to attack Japan. Japan attacked India in 1944, but the strong and large allied forces defeated the Japanese at the battle of Kohima.
The defeat of Germany.
After 1942, the tide of success began to turn against Hitler. German forces were defeated by the allies in North Africa and France. By March 1945, the Allies had crossed the Rhine, pushed the Germans out of France in June 1944.The Germans were meanwhile facing the Russian attack from the East. Hitler accepted defeated and handed over power to one of the Military Generals to retreat to an underground Bunker in Berlin.
On 29th April 1945, Hitler married his long term Mistress Eva Braun. On the following day, he committed suicide by shooting himself while Eva Braun took Poison.
On 7th May 1945, the Germans surrendered unconditionally.
Why the Germans were defeated.
- Germany had acquired far too many territories and she was unable to effectively control them.
- The USSR recovered from her losses and began to rearm in a bid to fight against Germany.
- The USA entry into the war in 1941 on the side of the allies contributed to the eventual defeat of the Germans.
- Germany’s Axis powers were only four, fighting against more than 27 allies. Even among the German collaborators, Italy surrendered while Bulgaria and Romania also were a burden to the Germans.
The defeat of Japan.
After Germany surrendered, Japan continued with fierce fighting sometimes employing the services of suicide bombers known as Kamikaze. The allies were able to liberate the territories captured by Japan.After the defeat at Okinawa, Japan was certain of defeat, but her PM , Admiral Suzuki Kantaro, did not believe in unconditional defeat.
On 6th August 1945, a bomber Aeroplane, Enola Gay, commanded by Colonel Paul Tibbets, flew over Hiroshima dropping a 4535.15kg atomic bomb. About 78,000 people died.
On 8th August 1945, Russia attacked Japan. On 9th August 1945, an even larger Bomb was dropped on Nagasaki killing more than 40,000 people.
Japan surrendered unconditionally on 15th August 1945 bringing WWII to an end.
Factors that enabled the allied powers to win the Second World War
- Allies had more wealth in terms of food, raw materials and equipments.
- Allies controlled the North Sea, which ensured safe transportation of troops and equipment. They were also able to block the central powers in the sea.
- Entry of USA in the war led to defeat of Germany. America had strong American air force and war resources,
- Germany’s inability to control her expansive territories and some turned against her and in favour of the allied powers.
- The unity, morale and determination of the allied leaders and fighters.
- Popular sentiment was for allied victory and Hitler’s defeat.
- Hitler's overconfidence and craziness did not allow him to comprehend the enormity of opposition up against him and the axis forces.
- External support especially from the colonial people in Africa, Asia and elsewhere.
- Axis powers dropped out of war one by one.
- Allies had better industries and financial resources/ superior economy, war tactics and superior diplomacy by all the allied powers.
- The axis powers made serious tactical mistakes e.g. Hitler failed to prepare for a winter campaign in Russia and was obsessed with the idea that Germans must not retreat.
- When the USSR recovered from her losses, she re-armed herself and attacked Germany.
Social results of Second World War
- Depopulation and great suffering as Millions of people perished either in war or due to famine and diseases.
- People suffered psychologically and emotionally from the loss of loved ones and torture of the war.
- The end of the war witnessed change in the status of women. Women started doing work, which was initially monopolized by men. E.g. military and management.
- There was permanent ill health and shortening of life for millions of peoples because of years of under- nourishment or captivity.
- There was massive Destruction of property such as homes, houses, buildings, roads and bridges.
- A large number of people were displaced as people moved to look for peaceful areas and this led to great suffering. The new refugees included the Jews, Slavs and the poles.
- The war fomented bitter feelings and mistrust among the countries that fought.
- The war helped to shade off the myth popularized by Europeans that they were a superior race to Africans as European causalities in the war proved that they were Mortals.
Political effects of the World War II.
- Defeat of axis powers led to government changes in Germany, Italy and Japan.
- The division of Europe into two opposing blocs led to the cold war, which was followed by an arms race between USA and USSR.
- Germany was divided into two. The communist East and the capitalist West. The city of Berlin was also divided between the east and the west.
- Germany and Italy were weakened especially with the loss of their colonies.
- U.S.A & U.S.S.R emerged as superpowers. The pre-war balance of power was destroyed and the power vacuum was filled by two new superpowers, the USA and USSR
- A weakness of the League of Nations to prevent the outbreak of war was demonstrated. This Led to UNO formation.
- There was rise of nationalism in Asia and Africa. It led to Africans struggle for independence because they were confident knowing that Europeans were no superior to them. Nationalists among the Asians leading to attainment of independence in Pakistan and India in 1947, in Burma (Myanmar) in 1948, and in Ceylon (Sri Lanka.) in 1949.
- The Japanese destroyed the myth of European military superiority due to the defeat of British and American forces in the Far East.
- New states were created. In 1948, the state of Israel was established in the Middle East, to settle the Jews who were displaced during the war.
Economic effects of World War 2.
- Agriculture and industries were disrupted due to lack of equipment, raw materials and human resources.
- External trade almost came to a standstill because of fear and insecurity.
- It led to increased dependency on colonies by European powers. There was need of raw materials to reconstruct the destroyed industries.
- Some Industries were established in the colonies to manufacture goods because of the difficulties faced in running them during the war.
- It led to the rise of European economic cooperation. The post war economic destructions led to the need for cooperation. This paved way for formation of the European Economic Community in 1957.
The Electoral Process and Functions of Governments in Other Parts of The World (Great Britain)
30/12/2021
BRITAIN
The Saxon Kings who invaded Britain in the 5th Century AD had absolute powers- ruling without consulting the citizens, and their positions were hereditary. However, in the 12th century AD, they introduced the parliamentary system.
They agreed that the kings/queens could only rule according to the laws of the land that should be made by the representatives of the people. This was what came to known as a constitutional monarchy.
The electoral process in Britain
Unlike USA and other major democratic states outside commonwealth, there is no fixed date for British parliamentary elections. The date of a general election is decided upon by the prime Minister.
- The economic situation that is the availability of funds.
- The state of the government’s legislative programme in the House of Commons.
- The desire to increase government support in parliament.
- General elections where members of the House of Commons are elected for a 5-year term.
- By elections in the event of resignation, death or resignation of a member of parliament.
In Britain, there are also euro-elections, first introduced in 1979, in which representatives to the European Union parliament are chosen.81 MPs were elected in 1979.
Voter Registration.
The following categories of people qualify to vote in Britain;
- British Citizens over the age of 18 years.
- Citizens from commonwealth countries who have resided in Britain for periods stipulated by law.
- Citizens of the republic of Ireland who have been residents for periods stipulated by law.
- Persons of unsound mind.
- Convicts detained in a prison.
- Persons convicted of corrupt or illegal practices in connection with elections cannot vote for five years from the date of conviction.
- Adults whose names do not appear on the register of voters.
- Peers or members of the House of Lords
- He/she must be a British citizen or a common subject or a citizen of the republic of Ireland.
- He/she must be of a minimum age of 21 years.
- He/ she must be nominated by a political party or be an independent candidate.
- English/Scottish peers who have the right to sit in the House of Lords.
- Clergy of the Church of England, or the Church of Ireland, Ministers of the church of Scotland, and Roman Catholic priests.
- Aliens.
- Certified Lunatics.
- Undisputed bankrupts.
- Convicted persons.
- Persons who have committed illegal practices during elections like corruption.
- Members of the armed forces.
Once nomination of candidates has taken place, campaigns are allowed for two weeks before voting; Each candidate appoints an election agent to manage the finances and protect the interests of the candidate during the campaign.
The agent also explains the candidate’s party policies and identifies party supporters within the constituency. He/she familiarizes the candidate’s name to prospective voters.
Each candidate must deposit 500 sterling pounds with the registrar, which is returned in the event that the candidate garners over 5% of the total vote in the constituency.
Elections in Britain are by plurality. Candidates who get the highest of votes win the elections. The party that secures most parliamentary seats is declared winner and is asked to form the next government. Emphasis is on number of seats not votes cast.
The House of Lords members are drawn from people with high offices. E.g. bishops, distinguished scientists and artists, great sportsmen, retired judges etc.
Functions of Government in Britain.
- The Monarchy.
- The Legislature.
- The Executive.
- The Judiciary.
The Monarchy.
Other Functions of the Monarchy.
- The monarch as head of state advises government
- The monarch summons, prorogue and dissolve parliament in consultation with the Prime Minister.
- The Monarch gives royal assent to bills passed by parliament to become law.
- Management of the country’s foreign policy including enactment of treaties.
- It confers honours to persons who have rendered distinguished services. For example, the peerages to become Lords or knights and will be referred to as LADY OR ‘Sir’
- The Monarch approves appointments to important state offices such as judges, senior members of the armed forces and civil service.
- The monarch pardons and gives reprieve to people who have been accused of committing various offences.
- The Monarch appoints Bishops and Archbishops of the Anglican Church.
Importance of the monarchy to the British people.
- The presence of the monarchy helps to give some continuity to executive policy.
- It inspires the head of government with a sense of responsibility and dignity.
- It acts as a useful counsellor to the head of government.
- It is the symbol of commonwealth unity.
- It sets standards for social life. The presence of members of the royalty at the inauguration of scientific, artistic and charitable works ensures nationwide support
- The royal family pays state visits to foreign government and undertakes tours in other countries of the commonwealth, hence contributing to better understanding between Britain and other nations.
The Legislature/parliament.
The following are ways through which one can gain membership to parliament in Britain;
- Elections.
- Nominations
- Inheritance.
- By Virtue of office. E.g. members of the House of Lords maintain their parliamentary seat whenever a new parliament is constituted.
How parliamentary supremacy is demonstrated in Britain.
- Parliament makes amends and abolishes laws. No other institution can do that.
- Branches of government operate under the laws passed by parliament. /parliament is the supreme institution in Britain and all other institutions derive their power from it.
- Parliament can pass a vote of no confidence in the executive. / has powers to remove any unpopular government from office.
- It approves government revenue and expenditure. / It is the only institution empowered to approve government budget.
- Decisions of parliament are binding to all. They cannot be overruled or nullified by a court of law.
The House of Lords.
Some membership is through holding senior positions within the Church of England Consists of 1200 members 800 of whom are heredity peers, 26 are Bishops and 21 are Lords of Appeal.
One can become a member of the House of Lords in the following ways;
- Through nomination by the monarch.
- When one holds hereditary parentage position. Normally the eldest male member of the family inherits the position.
- Through holding some senior position in the society e.g. within the Church of England - Archbishop of Canterbury.
Role played by the House of Lords in the British parliamentary system.
- The house of lords checks the powers of the House of Commons and therefore prevents nasty legislation. Bills from the House of Commons have to go to the House of Lords for debate and approval.
- It addresses non-controversial bills that the lower house has no time to address.
- The house of lords holds bills from the lower hose long enough to seek public approval
- The House of Lords questions ministers about the activities of government and stages debates on general issues of national policy.
- It seats as a court of appeal for criminal cases. on such occasions , the court is presided over by the lord chancellor (speaker of the house)
- It provides a forum for utilization of the talents of people who could not win a general election. These people are created peers by the queen and become members of the House of Lords.
- It enhances unity in the country as newcomers are created lords by the queen and then become members of the House of Lords.
- It provides continuity in operation of parliament. Old experienced peers retain their seats in the House of Lords until they die, so provide guidance to new and young politicians.
House of Commons.
Functions of the House of Commons.
- Discusses makes and amends laws. However, the monarchy and the house of Lords have powers to veto such laws.
- Approves government revenue and expenditure. It controls finances. No taxes can be imposed without the consent of the House of Commons.
- It has powers to pass a vote of No confidence in the executive (Check the powers of the executive to ensure that the rule of law is maintained.
- Debates on matters of national interest.
- It directs government policy and keeps development programmes on track.
- It is a training ground for future leaders.
Factors which influence the activities of Parliament in Britain.
- Members of the House of Commons must consider the moral values of the British society before making any decision.
- Parliamentarians are always sensitive to public opinion because any unpopular government or party risks not being re-elected.
- Local authorities are empowered to make by-laws even without consulting parliament.
- Interests of the institutions under the spotlight are always taken into account before legislation is done in parliament. E.g. the Church, Universities, Farmers, trade Unions etc.
- Legislation passed by one parliament can be changed by another future one.
- International law is also taken into account when laws are made.
The executive.
The Prime Minister.
He performs the following functions;
- Appoints and dismisses Cabinet ministers with the consent of the monarch.
- He/she recommends to the sovereign the appointment of senior civil servants such as the chief Justice, High Commissioners.
- He/she represents Britain in international fora.
- He/she controls the cabinet secretariat and oversees the execution of cabinet decisions by various departments.
- He/she is the leader of the party that nominates him/her.
- He/she settles disputes between various departments.
- He/she is the leader of the House of Commons.
- He/she initiates both domestic and foreign policies.
The Cabinet.
The cabinet performs the following functions;
- The cabinet ministers institute policies that guide the operations in the various departments of the ministry.
- Cabinet determines the policy to present to parliament for consideration.
- Cabinet is responsible for the coordination of government activity. E.g. all ministers must implement cabinet decisions with regard to their department.
- Once a government is defeated, on a major issue or on a vote of no confidence, it is expected to resign. A government whose party is defeated in General elections is expected to resign.
- The cabinet is drawn from the House of Commons and the House of Lords.
- The entire cabinet comes from the same political party of majority seats except during a crisis like war. Since 1945, Britain has never embraced a coalition.
- The advice offered by the cabinet must be accepted by the monarch, failure to which a crisis can occur.
- All members of the cabinet take the Oath of the Privy councillors and are bound to Secrecy by this oath and the official secrets Act.
- Members of the cabinet are collectively responsible for all decisions and actions as well as individually responsible of the departments they head.
The Civil Service
Functions of the civil Service in Britain.
- It implements ministerial policies as agreed by parliament.
- It assists in formulation of policies and generation of policy proposals.
- It manages government administrative machinery.
- It carries out normal duties that public administration demands.
Principles that characterize the British civil service.
- The tradition of anonymity. Civil servants are taken to be carrying out the instructions of minister. Ministers get all the credit for all good, as well as censure for all that is criticized.
- The principal of civil service impartiality. Those civil services are expected to serve whichever minister is in office without partiality. Senior civil servants are not permitted to take part in national politics except voting.
- Ministers make policies and civil servants execute the policies.
- The tradition of assumption that it is not the task of the civil service to initiate change or take responsibility for planning future lines of social and economic development.
The Judiciary.
How judicial independence is ensured in Britain.
- The salaries of judges are not open to discussion by parliament.
- Since 1701, judges have always bee appointed on good behaviour until retirement.
- A Judge can only be dismissed by a resolution from both houses.
The structure of the British Court System.
The court system in Northern Ireland closely resembles that of England and Wales, while the Scottish court system is a hybrid model that combines elements of both common and law and civil law systems.
This research guide focuses on the unified court system of England and Wales. For information about the Scottish judicial system, consult the Scottish Courts and Tribunals website. For information about the judicial system in Northern Ireland, consult the NIDirect website.
The High Court functions as both a court of first instance for high value civil claims and as an appellate court for civil and criminal cases. It consists of three divisions: the Queen's Bench, the Chancery Division, and the Family Division.
The Court of Appeal functions solely as an appellate chamber. The Civil Division hears appeals form the High Court and the County Court, and the Criminal Division hears appeals from the Crown Court.
Components of the British constitution.
- Statutes or acts of parliament e.g. act of union with Scotland of 1707.
- Customs-the accepted traditions e.g. the first-born of the sovereign succeeds the king /queen.
- Law of precedence-judges applies accepted principles to new set of facts.
- Custom of parliament e.g. the procedures of the two houses.
- Historical documents e.g. the Magna Carta.
The adopted a new constitution in 1787 and has the following features.
- It is Federal in nature.
- A written constitution.
- Bill of rights is contained in it.
- The Supreme Court can only interpret it.
- Legislature is Bicameral i.e. the senate & the House of Representatives forming the congress/two houses.
- It caters for the separation of powers.
- Does not provide for secession of a member state.
- Federal government and individual states share power through their senators in congress i.e. in making laws.
- The president is the head of the federal government and governors are heads of state.
- It is the supreme law of the land.
- Amendment can only be done through a clearly laid down procedure.
The electoral process in USA
- The election of the president.
- Congressional elections
- The state election involving election of state governors and state legislatures.
Party conventions are held in July to confirm winners of the primary elections. Each presidential candidate picks a running mate who becomes the vice president if the presidential candidate wins. Presidential elections are held after every 4 years (on 2nd November). The election of the president is determined indirectly by the Electoral College that comprises electors appointed by each state.
When a presidential candidate wins the popular vote in a state, he automatically wins all the State’s electors. Direct elections are done through popular vote of one man one vote.
Senators and members of the House of Representatives are elected after every two years. Senators serve for a period of six years with a third of them elected after every 2 years. Members of the House of Representatives serve for four years and are elected on party basis. Each state elects 2 representatives to the senate making a total of 100 senators for the 50 states.
Election of House of Representatives is on the basis of state population. For example, the largest state, California has 52 representatives while Wyoming, the smallest has only one representative. State governors and legislators are elected after every 4 years.
Features of the US system of government.
- The federal government is made up of the legislature, executive and the judiciary.
- Each state within the federal government functions as a republic and enjoys equal status.
- The federal government and independent states share the power of formulating and enforcing laws.
- All states have their constitutions but they should not be contradicting to the Federal Constitution.
- The Supreme Court interprets the constitution.
- The congress (Senate and the House of Representatives) is the body entrusted with legislative powers.
- Senate membership is through popular vote of two members from each state for a period of six years.
- The House of Representatives members are elected for a period of two years based on the size of the population. However, each state has to have at least one representative.
- All treaties and appointments by the president have to be ratified by the senate.
- Presidential vote must be supported by two thirds of the votes of the house.
- The Supreme Court made up of the chief justice and eight associate judges heads federal judiciary.
- The president appoints federal judges with the approval of the senate.
- Courts in the judiciary include the court of appeal, the district courts and other special courts, all formed by the congress.
- All criminal cases are handled in the courts except the cases of impeachment, which are voted by the house with the approval of the senate.
- Foreign policy and Defence is the preserve of the Federal Government.
Features of the state governments of U.S.A.
- Each state has a governor.
- Each state has a law court those carters for internal affairs.
- Each state provides educational, health facilities and public amenities for the welfare of the residents.
- Each state is responsible for its own development.
- Each state generates its own revenue necessary for discharging its responsibility.
- Each state has a state police that maintains law and order.
Limitations of state governments in USA.
- No state is permitted to enter any treaty, alliance or confederation with other states or countries.
- No state may make her own currency.
- States are forbidden, unless congress approves, to levy duties on imports or exports.
- States are prohibited from maintaining armed forces.
- States are prohibited from entering into any agreement with foreign powers or engaging in war.
How the conduct of USA president is checked
- The senate approves presidential appointees to executive positions.
- Congress can refuse to approve the use of government funds for a foreign policy it disagrees with. E.g. war.
- The congress can impeach a sitting president if his conduct while in office is wanting.
- The Supreme Court has powers to declare that the president has acted unconstitutionally, a verdict which can damage his status.
- Any president is limited by the constitution to two four-year terms in office.
- Opinion polls normally reflect the wishes and feelings of the American people, which the sitting president cannot ignore.
- The mass media monitors and reports to the general public every action or speech of the president.
Functions of the political parties in USA’
- Make electoral policies coherent.
- The party level helps voters to sort out through the candidates as parties usually stand for different policies.
- Parties help to put the desire of the people on the government policy agenda.
- Parties provide outlets for citizens to express their sentiments about nominees.
- Political party system provides accountability when the policies of the party fails/ voters hold candidates accountable.
Differences existing between the House of Representatives and the senate in terms of membership.
- The house of representatives is larger with more than 436 members whereas the senate has only 100 members.
- The house of representatives has short period of office (2 years) but the senate is on for a long period of office (6 years)
- Members of the House of Representatives at the elected by constituencies whereas the senate is elected by the stated
- Easier qualification for candidates for membership to the House of Representatives. The senate demands stricter qualifications.
- The house of representatives is less prestigious than the senate.
- Rules of the House of Representatives are more rigid than the rules governing the senate.
Functions of the USA president.
- He appoints cabinet ministers and senior civil servants with approval of the congress.
- He is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces.
- He is the head of the federal government of USA and the defender of of its constitution.
- The president formulates the public policy.
- He can veto or override bills passed by the congress.
- As a head of the party in power, the president influences public opinion and thereby guides the course of the congress.
- He guides and controls foreign affairs and makes treaties.
Electoral Process in the India
Describe the Indian electoral process.
- India’s parliament is composed of the Lower Chamber or House of The People (lok Sabha) and the Upper House or the Council of States (Rajya Sabha).
- The term of lok sabha is five years while that of rajya sabha is six years.
- Lok sabha consists of 545 elected members, 543 elected from each constituency created based on population size. The president nominates two.
- Political parties field candidates in each constituency.
- India’s universal adult suffrage is 18 years. Qualification age for vying is 25 years and above.
- The election commission, a constitution arm of the Indian electoral process oversees the elections.
- Candidates are required to declare their assets, age, educational qualifications and criminal history before being cleared to vie.
- Campaigning ends a day before the voting day. Government schools and colleges are chosen to be polling stations. Government servants are employed to man the polling stations.
- There is the use of electronic voting machines instead of ballot boxes.
- The candidate who gunners the most number of votes is declared the winner of the The party or coalition that has won the most number of seats is invited by the president to form the new government. The leader of the party becomes the prime minister.
- Rayja sabha consists of 250 members; the electoral college of India elects 248. The president nominates twelve members from among distinguished people.
- Every state is allotted a certain number of members.
- Candidate age limit is 30 years and above.
Functions of a prime minister in India.
- He is the head of the federal government
- He is the leader of the house to which he belongs. (he can be either a member of the rajya sabha (upper house) or lok sabha.
- As head of the council of ministers, the prime minister oversees the work o all the ministries.
- Chairs cabinet meetings, which are normally held in the cabinet room of the prime minister's’ office.
- Guides the president on appointment to the cabinet.
- Participates in the lawmaking process as a member of the lok sabha.
- The prime minister has traditionally been the minister-in-charge of the department of space, atomic energy and the ministry of personnel, public governance and pensions
- Recommends persons for presidential awards.
Functions of the Electoral Commission of India.
- Prepares electoral registers
- Setting dates for polling.
- Establishing and operating polling station.
- Allocation party symbols.
- Publishing electoral report.
- Accepting or rejecting nominations as per the law.
- Counting the votes.
- Drawing constituency boundary.
What conditions must one fulfill to be elected president in India
- He/she must be a citizen of India.
- He/she must have attained the age of 35 and above.
- He/she should not hold any office.
- He/she should be qualified to be elected as a member of the house of the people. (the lok sabha)
Functions of the cabinet in the government of India.
- Formulation of policy issues affecting the management of the government of India.
- Defends the government policy.
- Ensures that the civil servants implement government policy.
- Advises the president.
- Gives approval to the budget and estimates of the expenditure.
- The cabinet exercises general direction and control of government departments.
This is the process by which people are attracted to live in towns or large settlements. An urban centre is any area with a human population of 20,000 people or more.
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Early Urbanization.
Factors that influenced development of urban centres in Africa.
- Existence of transport routes-Meroe/Merowe located at an intersection of transport routes.
- Availability of water for irrigation which increased food production and influenced growth of towns e.g. Cairo.
- Industrial development –areas of industries grew up as towns since they attracted laborers e.g. Cairo.
- Commercial activities like trade-location along trade routes.
- Strategic location which ensured security and thus ample growth e.g. Kilwa.
- Growth of religion –some grew rapidly because they were religious centres.
- Mining –led to development of towns’ e.g. Meroe, Johannesburg.
This is the capital city of Egypt. The city was founded in 969 AD when the conquerors from Tunisia, ‘The Fatimid Dynasty’ invaded and conquered Egypt
Factors for the growth of Cairo.
- The Nile River provided water for domestic use and was also a means of transport. This enabled Cairo to grow.
- Availability of water for irrigation which increased food production and influenced growth of Cairo.
- Industrial development –various industries developed in Cairo. Food processing industries and construction works. The industries attracted migrants from rural areas.
- Fertile Nile Valley. the Valley had adequate rainfall and the river always carried silt which it deposited downstream to provide
- The Suez Canal which was opened in 1869 opened a new trade route which encouraged the arrival of thousands of Europeans. Commercial, administrative and public buildings were constructed during this time.
- Commercial activities like trade-location along trade routes. The Strategic location along the Nile attracted caravans which would pass through Cairo from North, west and Central Africa
- The opening of the Aswan High Dam in 1902 enhanced food production through irrigation thus influencing Cairo’s growth.
- The effects of the two world wars which disrupted Egypt’s trade with other countries thus compelling her to find ways of substituting imports. This boosted industrialization
- Cairo is a cultural centre being home to treasures preserved from the early Egyptian civilization and Islamic culture in their museums. ‘The city of a thousand Minarets’.
- Cairo also grew as a centre of education and medicine. Several institutions of higher learning such as the University of Cairo, American University and Azar University contributed to this.
Functions of Cairo.
- It was a national capital and a political centre of the Arab world.
- It serves as the transport and commercial centre of North Africa and the Middle East.
- It is a recreational centre housing many recreational facilities like stadiums and entertainment halls
- Cairo has been a historical centre being the house to the Egyptian civilization for over 5000 years
- Cairo serves as an industrial centre. Many of these developed during the industrialization process. For example, textile, vehicle and communication equipment assembly plants.
Cairo faces the following problems today;
- High population. Cairo is the largest city in Africa and the Middle East. One fifth of Egypt’s population stays in Cairo. In 1988, her population was 11 million.
- Scarcity of food. The high population in the city has caused food shortage.
- Unemployment. The number of unemployed people in Cairo is increasing every year mainly due to the high rate of migration to the city and the natural population increase.
- Housing problems. Between the Nile and the main airport, between 250,000 to 900,000 poor people have put up shanties. This area is commonly reffered to as the ‘city of Death’.
- Traffic jams.
- Pollution from the industries, vehicle exhaust, desert storms and garbage burning.
- High crime rate. This is mostly due to the high unemployment level
Solutions to the problems facing Cairo.
- The food shortage problem is being tackled through reclaiming land for agriculture. The Aswan high Dam provides water for irrigation.
- The housing problem is being addressed by constructing industries in the suburbs to reduce the population in the city.
- Traffic jams have been eased through the launching of the Cairo Metro in 1987, which was Africa’s first subway system, which serves the Ramses station to the north and Helwan area to the south. It conveys 60,000 passengers per hour.
Meroe/Merowe.
Factors for growth of Meroe.
- Existence of transport routes-Meroe/Merowe was located at an intersection of transport routes (from east via the red sea and from north via Egypt). This promoted trade with other parts of the world.
- Abundance of wood fuel, from the heavily forested Blue Nile / white Nile intersection area, which was a key to the prosperity of the iron-working industry.
- Mining –Merowe was located in a region endowed with a lot of iron.
Social effects of the growth of Merowe.
- The Merotic language developed to replace the Egyptian language previously used by the Nubian founders of Merowe.
- New architectural developments took place in the region. These were characterized by tombs where rulers were buried after death, ruins of temples, palaces and homes.
- Other industries developed besides the iron working industry. For example, weaving of cotton, cloth and pottery
Functions of Meroe during the colonial period.
- Meroe was a centre of iron working hence an early industrial centre.
- A mining centre since Meroe had iron ore, which it mined.
- A religious function since it had many temples where people worshipped their gods. The priests who headed the Meroe church had their headquarters in Meroe.
- It was a centre of trade.
- It was an administrative and political centre.
- Transport centre-major trade routes converged and radiated from Meroe.
Factors that led to decline of Merowe.
- The rise of Axum kingdom of Ethiopia which denied her access to the red sea.
- The increasing desertification of the region, perhaps due to the rapid deforestation. The city began declining in 350 BC.
Kilwa.
- The town is among the city states that developed along the east African coast. Her greatness was due to the Persian influence. One of its Shirazi rulers from Banadir Coast in Persia, Ali Ibn Hassan, transformed the town into a large city.
- The sultan erected a stone citadel to protect the island from external enemies. He also forced other conquered city-states to pay tribute to Kilwa.
- Later on Sultan al-Hassan Ibn Sulaiman I built the Great mosque of Kilwa in 1270 AD and a luxurious palace referred to by historians as Husuni Kubwa.
Factors influencing the growth of Kilwa.
- Exemplary leadership provided by the Shirazi Leaders who kept enemies off and forced the neighbouring city-states to pay tribute to Kilwa.
- The strategic location of Kilwa enabled her to attract merchants as it was a convenient stopping place.
- Monopoly of the sofala Gold Trade. The control of the Sofala Gold trade had fallen in the hands of Kilwa by 1300 AD
- The gleaming buildings of Kilwa such as the great Mosque and palace made her the Jewel of the Zenj Coast, minting her own coins to add to her prosperity.. the mosque became a tourist attraction later own
Functions of Kilwa.
- It was a major trading centre flourishing mainly due to the gold trade.
- It was a major defence centre since it was heavily fortified against external aggression by a stone citadel.
- It was a religious centre. Mosques for Islamic worship were located at Kilwa e.g the great mosque.
- It was an administrative centre which housed palaces for the rulers and other rich people. However 14th C AD, Kilwa’s prosperity began to decline due to the following reasons.
Factors that led to the decline of Kilwa.
- Disruption of the Gold trade/ civil wars among communities.
- Dynastic rivalries/ family feuds.
- Series of rebellions among some of the towns.
- Conquest by the Portuguese who even burnt the towns.
Factors that led to the collapse of early urban centres in pre-colonial Africa
- Collapse of state system and kingdoms for example Kush collapse and the coastal city states.
- Collapse of trade and their economic systems e.g. the trans-Saharan trade and long distance trade.
- Collapse of Arab influence I east Africa and east Africa.
- Impact of Portuguese conquest leading to destruction of towns like manda and decline of others.
- Introduction of new types of trade e.g. legitimate trade which replaced slave trade.
- European colonization brought in a new social political and economic order.
- Exhaustion of mineral resources e.g. gold as in case of sofala and Kilwa as well as Meroe. Some minerals lost value.
- Changes in transport routes as new roads by-passed some towns thus diverting trade to other centres e.g. Timbuktu
- As a result of stiff competition, some towns dwindled as others expanded.
Early urban centres in Europe
- This is one of the early states in ancient Greece that flourished after the Persian wars of between 490-480 BC.
- Athens developed from a farming settlement situated in a defensive site. It had many beautiful buildings such as the Parthenon (a large temple built between 460 and 430 BC in honour of Athena, the goddess of Athens). The acropolis was the highest part of the town.
- Athens had narrow streets and some of its houses were made of unbaked bricks or mud and thatched roofs.
- There were frequent outbreaks of diseases due to poor sanitation.
- The concept of democracy first developed in Athens. At the centre of the city was a market, Agora, which was used as an assembly hall for debates.
- Athenians were divided into four classes.
- a) First class –the richest that were the most heavily taxed.
- b) Second class- provided the cavalry for the army.
- c) Third class- provided the soldiers for the infantry.
- d) The fourth class- the poorest and who paid no taxes.
- Athens began to decline due to the Peloponnesian wars (431-404 BC). It was finally crushed in 338 BC by Phillip of Macedonia.
- Currently Athens is the capital of Greece with a population of 4 million.
Factors that led to growth of Athens.
- Trade and commerce. Their soils of the surrounding areas were infertile and, therefore could not support agriculture. The Athenians therefore resorted to trade to obtain foods in exchange for wine, wool and olive oil.
- Security. Athens was located in an easily defensible place. The town was surrounded by water, valleys and highlands making it difficult for an external enemy to attack.
- Religious activities. The area was a worship centre. People coming to the Parthenon temple contributed to the growth of the town.
- Accessibility and communication network. The port of Athens was located about six kilometres from the city thus making Athens a transport centre.
- Availability of water.
Functions of Athens.
- It was a cultural centre. The Greeks loved to watch play. In Athens, there was the great theatre of Epidaurus.
- An educational centre. In Athens, every person was taught how to read and write. Athens became a centre of scholarly work producing great thinkers like Socrates, Plato, Pythagoras, Archimedes and Aristotle.
- Athens was a sports centre. There were Gymnasiums where boys were taught games which were developed into what came to be known as Olympics.
- Religious centre. The Parthenon temple was a great manifestation of this function. People coming to the Parthenon temple contributed to the growth of the town.
London.
- The capital city of England, it is situated on the estuary of the river Thames. Its name is derived from the name Llyn Dun which means ‘Celtic Lake Fort’. The town developed during the Roman rule in Britain in A.D 43.
- By 314 AD London had become an early centre of Christianity.
- In 1381, the city was adversely affected by a serious peasant, revolt that led to massive destruction of property.
- By 18th c, London had emerged as an elegant city though however also with numerous urban related problems. In 1890, it hosted the world’s first electric train.
Factors influencing growth of London.
- Trade-money obtained from trading was used to build the city.
- Industrialization-industry such as textile, ship building, metal works, etc led to the growth of London.
- Improved transport –London is well served by a network of railway and roads. This facilitated the movement of goods and people.
- Shipping activities-there are many harbours in London enabling expanded loading and unloading activities
- Population growth.
- London was the seat of government for a very long time.
Functions of London.
- It was a transport and communication centre. The city was inter-connected with roads which served various parts of Britain. The city houses the main international airports on UK. E.g Heathrow- the busiest airport in the world.
- It is a political and administrative capital with offices for the Prime Minister and cabinet. The Monarchical offices are also located here.
- It is a commercial centre. Many financial institutions such as banks and other commercial and trading activities attract a lot of traders.
- An industrial centre. London was an early centre of the textile industry. There are light service industries in the city.
- It is an educational centre, housing institutions like the oxford university, the University of London, founded in 1836, etc.
- London is a historical centre. The city has theatres for the performance of cultural activities and museums which display artefacts of Historical importance.
Problems of London.
- Like many large cities worldwide, London has its share of problems:
- overcrowding,
- Unemployment has continued to increase with the growing population. In 1988, for example, nearly 1 in 8 people were unemployed throughout London and the situation in the inner city was worst
- Poor housing and homelessness. This has led to development of slums.
- Transportation is another problem. However, an excellent public system has helped to alleviate this.
- Air pollution continues to be a major challenge.
- Rural-urban migration by the job seekers causing overcrowding in the city.
- Poverty. This was a greater problem in London in the initial stages.
Modern cities in Africa.
Nairobi developed as a depot and camp for the railway workers during the construction of the kenya-Uganda railway
Factors influencing the growth of Nairobi
- Excellent location in an area almost midway between Mombasa and Lake Victoria.
- There was adequate supply of water.
- The land was suitable for construction of workshops as it was flat.
- The climate was suitable for Europeans. Cool temperatures at an altitude of 1700m.
- It was surrounded by a fertile countryside producing adequate foods.
- Transfer of the seat of the colonial government in 1907.
Functions of Nairobi.
- It was a transport and communication centre. The city is inter-connected with roads which served various parts of the country. The city houses the main international airport- JKIA.
- It is an administrative capital with offices for the head of state, cabinet, parliament and department of defence.
- It is a regional headquarter of various international bodies like UN, ILO etc.
- It is a commercial and financial centre. Many financial institutions such as banks and other commercial and trading activities attract a lot of traders.
- An industrial centre. Nairobi’s industrial area hosts many key industries in Kenya and east Africa.
- It is an educational centre, housing institutions like the University of Nairobi, kenya polytechnic and other key institutions
- It is a tourist centre. The town boasts of various tourist attractions such as the Nairobi National Park, National Museums etc.
Problems facing Nairobi
- Rural-urban migration by the job seekers causing overcrowding in the city.
- Unemployment has continued to increase with the growing population.
- Poor housing. The population growth in Nairobi to 3 million has not corresponded to the development of housing.
- Inadequate social services including health services and educational facilities.
- Congestion on roads caused by an increase in the number of vehicles on the roads while the road network is not expanding.
- Poor town planning has led to poor drainage, especially during heavy rains when a lot of flooding occurs
- Pollution continues to be a major challenge in Nairobi. The factories located in the city are a cause of air and noise pollution.
- Water shortage caused by the high rate of expansion in the town and the depletion odf water reservoirs.
- The rate of HIV/AIDS infection is very high.
Solutions to these problems.
- New housing projects are being developed. For example the Mathare slums upgrading project.
- The education and other social services are being provided through a cost-sharing scheme between the government and the town dwellers.
- The government is addressing the transport/congestion problem through the upgrading of the Thika superhighway to an eight lane highway; the Nairobi Syokimau Railway service was commissioned by president Kibaki I November 2012 to de-congest jogoo road. Etc.
- The government is encouraging the expansion of the informal sector as an alternative source of employment.
- The government is rehabilitating street families by taking them to schools to acquire relevant skills to make them useful to the nation.
- New water projects have been put in place. For example, the third Nairobi water Project from River Chania.
- The government is sensitizing, through NGOs and GOs, civilians about responsible sex as a measure to curb the spread of HIV/AIDS.
Johannesburg.
- The city started as a mining camp in 1886 after the discovery of gold in the Witwatersrand. This attracted thousands of people coming to prospect for minerals and seek for employment.
- By the end of 19th c, the population of Johannesburg had risen to 166,000 people.
Factors which contributed to the growth of Johannesburg
- Existence of minerals/discovery of gold in the Witwatersrand which resulted in a rush of people to the area.
- Availability of energy i.e. coal which was an important source of energy to the mines, industries and homes.
- Excellent location in the veldt/plain making construction work easy.
- Its proximity to Vaal River which supplied plenty of water to industries and domestic use.
- Area around Johannesburg is fertile and therefore agriculturally productive ensuring steady supply of food.
- The organization of the city council which has ensured that financial control and revenue collection is effectively and the city able to manage its growth problems.
- Government policy of supporting industrial development. This has favored its growth.
Functions of Johannesburg.
- It was a transport and communication centre. The city has a highly developed network of transport lines since it served the mining industry. In June 2010, it became the first city in Africa to house an electric train service.
- An industrial centre. Its manufacturing functions include mining, metalwork, engineering, diamond cutting, jewellery manufacturing and food processing.
- It is a commercial and financial centre. Many financial institutions such as banks and other commercial and trading activities attract a lot of traders. It is also a major shopping centre in South Africa.
- It is an educational centre, housing institutions like the University of Witwatersrand, teacher training colleges and other key institutions.
Problems facing Johannesburg.
- The problem of racial segregation. The black Africans who work around Johannesburg were often treated almost as slaves though they were the majority in the country.
- Poor housing. Most of the workers who work in and around Johannesburg live in shanties , mainly because of underpayment
- Unemployment has continued to increase with the growing population. Though the city is an industrial town, her industries have failed to provide sufficient employment for all people in the town.
- Rural-urban migration by the job seekers causing overcrowding in the city.
- A large gap between the affluent class, especially the Europeans and the poor people who majorly are African
- Congestion on roads caused by an increase in the number of vehicles on the roads while the road network is not expanding.
- The city has the highest crime rate in the world.
- Inadequate social services including health services and educational facilities.
- Water shortage caused by the high rate of expansion in the town and the depletion of water reservoirs.
- The rate of HIV/AIDS infection is very high.
Solutions to the problems.
- The apartheid regime was ended in 1994 thus ending the problem of racial segregation.
- The new government of South Africa is trying to come up with better housing estates.
- Crime has been contained by creating more job opportunities.
- The government is sensitizing, through NGOs and GOs, civilians about responsible sex as a measure to curb the spread of HIV/AIDS
Impact of agrarian development on urbanization in Africa.
- The practice of agriculture forced people to adopt a sedentary lifestyle. Such settlement formed the basis of the earliest urban centres.
- Early agriculture led to specialization. The areas where the potters, iron smelters weavers and fishermen did their work grew up into urban centres
- From the agrarian revolution, there was adequate food for town dwellers.
On urbanization in Europe
- The revolution in Europe led to a landless society who moved to urban centres seeking employment. This promoted urban growth.
- Increased agricultural production ensured steady supply of raw materials to the new industries hence further growth of the industries.
- Agricultural expansion meant the big farmers had to borrow loans hence the expansion of banking facilities in towns leading to further growth.
- Agricultural produce entering and leaving countries had to be handled in ports hence towns near coasts grew.
Impacts of industrial revolution on urbanization in the world.
- The establishment of many factories drew many people to towns in search of employment the mining industry attracted many people to work in the mines. The mining camps soon grew up into towns.
- Industrial revolution stimulated innovations in transport and communication ensuring faster movement of people to further expansion of trading towns.
- The growth of industry has led to expansion of port towns to handle increased manufactured goods for export and raw material for factories e.g. growth of London, Budapest, Marseilles, Lagos and Cairo.
- The use of machines replaced human labour and caused layoffs. Those who lost their jabs sometimes became a security risk hence an increase in crime.
- The many inefficient factories that came up after the revolution have caused massive air and water pollution.
- Rural urban migration has exerted pressure on the limited resources and services the towns can offer.
Consequences of urbanization on European communities during the 19th c.
- Rural –urban migration by Africans looking for better opportunities led to increased crime levels and insecurity for the Europeans.
- Air pollution which also affected them.
- Creation of employment for the Europeans in the developing industries.
- Creation of markets for agricultural produce due to increased urban population.
- Europeans were deprived of cheap African labour as most of them moved to urban areas.
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History Notes Form 1, Form 2, Form 3 and Form 4 in Slideshow ('Powerpoint', '.pptx')
Colonial system of administration in Kenya
Central Government.
Hierarchy of colonial administration in Kenya.
- Colonial secretary.
Based in London, he was the political head of the British colonial administration and overall coordinator of the colonial policies as passed by the British parliament. - Governor.
Reporting to the colonial secretary, he was the representative of the British government in the Kenyan colony. He headed the executive council which affected colonial policies and programmes he gave assent to laws from the LEGCO before they were implemented. - Provincial Commissioners.
They represented the governor at provincial level and implemented the policies and laws that were enacted by the legislative council that was established in 1907. They supervised the work of DCs, Dos and the entire provincial administration on behalf of the governor. - District commissioners.
They implemented policies and maintained law and order and security in their districts. They headed the District Advisory Committees. They coordinated the work of Dos and Chiefs. - District Officers.
They implemented orders from the DCs and coordinated the work of the chiefs. They maintained law and order in their divisions. - Chiefs.
They acted as a link between the people and the Governor at local levels. They maintained law and order at the locations and coordinated the work of headmen. - Headmen.
They were a link between the government and the people at the grassroots level. They mobilized people for development within their villages.
Local Government.
- The British introduced the Local Government in colonial Kenya because;
- They wanted to involve the local communities in administration of the region. This would reduce the costs of administration.
- They wanted to mobilize local people in resources exploitation in order to stir up development
- Local Government was a means of providing a legal forum for the local people to make decisions about their day to day affairs
- The Local Government would provide an important link between the Central government and the locals.
- The Local Government would provide a means through which the government would understand Africans better.
- It also originated from the desire by European settlers to safeguard a number of privileges for themselves by getting directly involved in local administrative units
Local Native Councils.
In 1924, the District Advisory Councils (DACs) were renamed Local Native Councils (LNCs)
Objectives of the LNCs.
- To encourage and develop a sense of responsibility and duty among the Africans.
- To provide a mechanism through which educated Africans could articulate their grievances at District level.
- To ensure proper restriction of the Africans in their reserves.
- To provide a means through which the government would understand the Africans better so that to contain them.
Achievements of the Local Native councils.
- The council's succeeded in restriction African political Agitations and other activities to their reserves.
- The LNCs provided basic social needs like water, cattle Dips, Public Health, Education and Markets.
- They succeeded in maintaining basic infrastructure in their areas of jurisdiction.
- They succeeded in collecting taxes to finance their operations.
Impact of Local government.
- It exploited local resources and initiated development.
- It created a link between the central government and the local people.
- It helped maintain law and order using the small police force set up in 1896.
- It promoted infrastructural development and general welfare of Africans. It used the levied taxes to improve social services such as schools and hospitals.
- It helped in the arbitration of African disputes through the District African Courts. E.g, Land disputes were settled by the LNCs.
Factors that undermined the local Government.
- Shortage of trained personnel to work in the LNCs and ADCs.
- Poor transport and communication leading to poor coordination of their activities.
- Lack of adequate revenue to finance their operations as the colony lacked strategic mineral resources.
- There was a lot of rivalry between the settlers and the locals, later becoming the freedom struggles. This hampered the operations of the councils.
- Racial discrimination was so pronounced that basic services were absent in African areas. Many Africans survived through self-help schemes.
COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION
- Direct rule.
- Indirect rule.
Difference between direct rule and indirect rule.
- Indirect rule was a system under which the British recognized the existing African political system and used it to rule over the colonies.
- Direct rule was a system where the Europeans/the British entrenched themselves in the direct administration of their colonies. Indigenous political and administrative institutions and leaders are replaced with European systems.
Indirect rule
Why Britain used indirect rule in Kenya and Nigeria.
- Britain lacked enough manpower to handle all the administrative responsibilities in the colonies. For example, in the Nigerian protectorate, there were only 42 British officials by 1900.
- Lack of adequate funds for colonial administration from the parent government made her use the existing traditional political system as a means of cutting down the administrative costs.
- The use of indirect rule was a means of diffusing the expected stiff resistance from the Africans. The traditional rulers were to be made to feel that they had lost no power.
- The policy of administration had succeeded in India and Uganda, thus motivating them to apply it in Kenya and Nigeria.
British rule in Kenya.
Where the institution of chieftainship did not exist as the case of the Agikuyu, the British appointed chiefs (men with ability to communicate in Kiswahili and organize porters) like Kinyanjui wa Gathirimu in Kiambu, Karuri wa Gakure in Murang’a and Wang’ombe wa Ihura in Nyeri.
The passing of the Village Headman Act in 1902 gave the chiefs the responsibilities of maintaining public order, hearing of petty cases and clearing of roads and footpaths.
The 1912 0rdinance increased the powers of the chiefs and their assistants (headmen); they were now allowed to employ other persons to assist them, such as messengers and retainers. They were to assist the District officers in Tax collection and control brewing of illegal liquor and cultivation of poisonous plants like Cannabis sativa. They were to control carrying of weapons and mobilize African labour for public works.
The selected colonial chiefs however faced two problems;
- Most of them lacked legitimacy and were therefore rejected not only by the African elders who regarded them as nonentities, but also by the young generation who saw them as tools of colonial oppression and exploitation.
- Many of the colonial chiefs were young and inexperienced.
- Many of the chiefs also became unpopular since they used their positions to amass riches in terms of large tracts of land, livestock and wives. E.g Chief Musau wa Mwanza and Nthiwa wa Tama acquired 8000 herds of cattle and 15 wives respectively in kambaland.
The British in Nigeria.
In Northern Nigeria, Fredrick Lugard employed indirect rule.
Reasons for the use of indirect rule by the British in northern Nigeria.
- The system was cost-effective. There was need to reduce the administrative cost by using the local chiefs in administration while employing very few British officials.
- Northern Nigeria had communities with a well-organized centralized system of government complete with Islamic sharia whose use provided a base to govern the protectorate. i.e. The Sokoto Caliphate
- The vastness of the region coupled with the inadequate British administrative work force and Poor transport and communication network made it difficult for the British officials to effectively administer some parts of the region.
- The system would help dilute African resistances since governance was by local rulers. The British were keen on guarding against the local resistance to their administration.
- The method ensured smooth transition from African to British dominion. It was a way of deliberately preparing Africans for self-government.
- Indirect rule had been tried successfully in Uganda and India.
- In Northern Nigeria, the existing emirates with centralized system of administration formed the basis of local governance. The Emirs were retained and were to rule under supervision of the British resident officials.
- The British administration was based on the local customs and laws. Chiefs chosen by the British were to be acceptable by the local people. Local chiefs collected taxes and a portion of it was given to the Central Government.
- Local Native Courts operated as per the laws of the land. The Emirs were allowed to try cases in their own Muslim courts.
- The Emirs were mandated to maintain law and order. They possessed firearms.
- In 1914, Northern and Southern Nigeria were Brought under one syatem of administration . However Lugard found it hard to apply indirect rule in Southern Nigeria.
- a) Southern Nigeria lacked a centralized indigenous system of administration, which would have been vital in the application of indirect rule.
- b) The south had many ethnic groups, many languages and many disparities in customs, which denied it the homogeneity necessary for the application of indirect rule.
- c) The southern people were infuriated by the British introduction of new concepts like forced labour and direct taxes.
- d) The British did not give themselves time to understand the operation of the social, political and economic systems of the people of southern Nigeria.
- e) The educated elites in the south felt left out of the administration of their own country in favour of the illiterate appointees of the British.
- f) There existed communication barrier between the British supervisors, the warrant chiefs and the people, which sometimes led to misinterpretation and misunderstanding.
- g) The warrant chiefs sometimes misused their powers in tax collection and molesting women sexually.
- h) The british had used excessive force in dealing with any form of resistance and this made them unpopular
- Indirect rule could only e applied where centralized government was present. Its application in stateless societies often faced difficulties.
- Where chiefs were imposed, especially in the stateless societies, their authority lacked legitimacy and only resulted in suspicion and lack of confidence. This would lead to constant riots when they tried to exert their authority.
- Local people even in the highly centralized states looked at indirect rule as curtailing the authority of their local rulers and hence resented it. E.g the Yoruba state in Nigeria.
- Some inexperienced British officials tended to interfere too much with the vital African customs and practices e.g. among the Asante thus bringing further problems.
- Different administrations had different views on the degree of indirect rule to be applied hence confusion was created. It was difficult to draw a boundary between the advisory and supervisory roles of colonial powers.
- Language was a problem and there was need for interpreters. Communication was poor and made adaptation difficult.
- Education of chiefs was necessary but even this took a long time and needed patience and skillful knowledge which the British did not have.
- The system led to transformation of the role of traditional African chiefs. they now began to recruit fellow Africans to provide labour to the colonial government and even fight in world war I. the chiefs thus became unpopular.
- The indigenous system of administration was modernized by the British especially in northern Nigeria.
- Many African chiefs used their positions to accumulate a lot of wealth at the expense of their people. Chiefs like Wang’ombe and Gakure in central Kenya acquired large tracts of land.
- Indirect rule created suspicion and mistrust between the educated elites and the traditional chiefs who were given power in southern Nigeria. The elite reacted by forming political movements thus leading to growth of nationalism in Nigeria.
- Indirect rule helped preserve African cultures, unlike assimilation which sought to replace them.
This system was mainly used in regions with large white settler population such as Algeria , south Nigeria and Zimbabwe.
Direct rule in Zimbabwe
Characteristics of direct rule in Zimbabwe.
- Zimbabwe had a large number of European settlers with their population rising to 50,000 by 1931. The whites therefore maintained an advantaged position throughout their administration of Zimbabwe.
- Many of the British settlers developed the attitude and consequently the belief that the territory was preordained to be a white settler colony.
- The territory was administered by a commercial company (B.S.A.C) for a long period ( 1890-1923)
- An administrator below who was a long chain of European civil servants performing simple administrative duties headed BSAC.
- Direct method of administration was applied to the Africans who had initially resisted the intrusion. New chiefs were appointed to dethrone the traditional leaders.
- The Legislative Council that was begun in 1898 gave the European settlers political Rights to the extent that by 1923, they had attained some self-governance.
- The system was characterized by massive alienation of African Land compelling Africans to provide labour to the new European settlers.
- There was racial segregation which was effected through the Legislative Council. African communities suffered greatly in the hands of the settler regime.
- The British desired to fully control the economy of Zimbabwe and maximize on profit generation through direct involvement in administration.
- The Shona and Ndebele resistance against British intrusion made them not to trust the Matabele chiefs nor use them as British agents
- There was lack of reliable political system to be used in indirect administration of the region. The local political institutions based on the Induna system had been destroyed when the British conquered and occupied Zimbabwe.
- Existence of enough B.S.A Co personnel on the spot who were familiar with the area as well as the British system of government.
- Favourable climatic conditions and the expected rich mineral deposits attracted many settlers who later provided the necessary personnel.
- There was a strong desire by the Europeans to be able to direct their own affairs and destiny without interference from within or without/The spirit nationalism
The government was headed by a resident Commissioner who was appointed by the Company stationed at Salisbury. Below him were various commissioners in charge of the Districts (all Europeans). Below them were African Chiefs whose duty included collecting tax, recruiting labour and maintaining law and order. In 1898, a LEGCO was established –heavily dominated by the European settlers. An Executive Council, consisting of the Resident Commissioner and 4 nominees of BSA.Co was also established. In 1902, a Native Affairs Department, headed by a European Native Commissioner was created thus entrenching the dominance of Europeans in Zimbabwe. The duty of the commissioner was to allocate land to Africans, collect taxes and recruit labour.
For lack of enough valuable minerals in Zimbabwe as expected, the Europeans compensated by acquiring large tracts of land from African communities with some having grants of upto 3000 acre pieces of land.( Europeans occupied 21 million acres while Africans despite their majority were confined to 24 million acre reserves.)
The Company relinquished control in 1923 to for Zimbabwe to become a crown colony.
Crown colony Rule (1923-1953)
Why the settlers favoured crown colony over merger with South Africa.
- The merger would have led to domination by Afrikaners in their political matters.
- Their economic interests would have been neglected in favour of those of Afrikaners. As a crown colony, a Governor was appointed in 1923 to represent the Queen of England. British government was empowered by the constitution to veto any legislation that would discriminate against Africans. This however never happened practically.
To legitimize the two pyramids policy were two Acts that were passed in 1930 and 1934. a) Land Apportionment Act of 1930.
The Act introduced rigid territorial segregation with land being divided into white’s and Africans’ portions. No African was allowed to acquire land outside their segregated portion. The minority whites acquired over half of the best arable land. Africans were given the semi arid areas infested by mosquitoes.
Land was categorized into four;
- Native Reserve Area. For Africans population. The Land was characterized with congestion since it was inadequate.
- Native Purchase Area. For Africans to buy. Such areas had harsh climatic conditions.
- European Area. For Whites only.
- Unassigned Area. For government expansion of buildings and other uses.
- Many Africans became migrant labourers, moving to mines, towns and European farms to provide cheap labour since their land was unproductive.
- Large tracts of African land were alienated and they were confined to only 29 million acres while only 50,000 whites occupied 49 million acres of land.
- This exposed Africans to problems like overgrazing that further deteriorated their land.
- There was widespread poverty among Africans. For those on the reserves, they faced starvation, those in towns faced slum life.
- Africans suffered racial segregation in provision of social services in urban areas.
- There was disruption of social roles as African men moved to towns and settler farms. Women took over men’s jobs in the reserves.
- Land apportionment became the seedbed for the rise of African nationalism in Zimbabwe.
- Africans were exposed to over taxation to compel them to provide labour to the Europeans.
- The prime objective of the Act was to protect white workers from African competition. The government through the act prohibited Africans from setting up a trade union. Africans from beyond southern Rhodesia were imported to provide labour to the whites at low wages.
- The act resulted in relegation of Africans to the lowest level while skilled jobs were set aside for the Europeans.
- The two acts resulted in the humiliating conditions for the Africans which resulted in the rise of African Nationalism that continued more after the Second World War.
- As an answer to African agitation, the government invited more white settlers giving them more large tracts of land. The settlers also began to agitate for the formation of a federation of the three central African territories (southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland)
- In 1953, the British government gave approval for the formation of the federation of central African countries.
The federation was organized as follows;
- Each territory had its own government responsible for local administration.
- Each territorial government was responsible for all aspects of native affairs within its boundaries.
- The British government was directly involved in the administration of the two northern protectorates.
- An African Board was established to ensure that no racist legislation against the Africans was passed in the federation parliament.
- The Federal Parliament was given powers to deal with all matters involving more than one territory and foreign affairs.
- The first Prime Minister of the Federation, Garfield Todd, being sympathetic to African protests over formation of the federation, legalized the formation of trade Unions and funded African education and Agriculture.
- Unfortunately when Todd was replaced in 1958, all his programmes were abandoned. In 1963, the federation was dissolved and shortly afterwards Malawi and Zambia became independent as southern Rhodesia remained a self-governing colony.
- Ian Smith’s Rhodesian Front Party, controlled by the white extremists with no regards for Africans, won the 1962 elections.
- On 15th october 1965, Smith led the settlers to announce a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) from Britain implying that political leadership was now fully in the hands of the white rebel settlers.
- This declaration provoked instant protest not only within Africa but also from the international community. UN declared sanctions against South Rhodesia though countries like South Africa and Portugal unfortunately continued to trade with her making the sanctions ineffective.
In 1970, UDI declared itself a republic under a new constitution that entrenched white's’ position in Zimbabwe by spelling the following;
- Voting qualifications for Africans were revised and were now based on income. This automatically disenfranchised the majority of Africans.
- The land tenure system was revised to enable the Europeans to purchase land from the government.
Effects of British rule in Zimbabwe.
- It led to African land alienation by white settlers/ Africans were displaced from their ancestral lands.
- The establishment of white settlement subjected Africans to abject poverty and suffering. Africans were subjected to intense economic exploitation through taxation and forced labour.
- African traditional economy was undermined as many of the Africans were forced to work for the Europeans.
- African interests were ignored in the day-to-day running of the colony.
- African traditional rulers lost their autonomy and became mere puppets of British administration.
- African cultures were undermined, for example through the separation of families as people sought alternative livelihood.
- The white settlers were to enhance the production of cash crops as transport, trade and industry were developed.
- Africans were denied freedom of movement and confined I reserves.
- Positively, it led to development of transport network the region.
- It led to introduction of new crops in the region
- It led to rise of nationalism as many Africans could no longer bear the burden of suffering in the hands of the whites.
ASSIMILATION
Definition.
This was a system of administration in which French colonies were given a culture and civilization similar to that of France. This system was influenced by the French revolution of 1789, which emphasized the equality of all men. In Africa, it was perfected by Lewis Faidherbe in Senegal when he was governor from 1854 to 1865. To many historians Assimilation was a deliberate French policy to help them destroy African Chieftaincies and Kingdoms that were thriving at the time of their arrival. Under the system, Africans had to;- Learn the French language.
- Practice the French legal system.
- Apply the French civil and political system.
- Convert to Christianity and learn French mannerism including eating and dressing habits. Later on assimilation evolved into association which had been first applied in Africa in central Africa by Savorgnan de Brazza.
French administration in West Africa.
- The French system of administration was highly centralized.
- The eight French colonies were grouped into the confederation of French West Africa. They were governed from one capital, Dakar, Senegal.
- The federation was headed by a Governor-General answerable to the French Minister for colonies in Paris. Each colony was headed by a lieutenant- Governor answerable to the Governor-General in Dakar.
- Each colony was divided into cercles (provinces), each headed by a commandant de cercle. Each cercle was further divided into small districts each headed by a chef de sub-division below whom were African chiefs (chefs de cantons in charge of locations). At the base were chefs de village in charge of the sub-locations.
- All the French overseas colonies were seen as overseas provinces and each elected a deputy to the French Chamber of Deputies in Paris (lower House). However the French administrators appointed lacked high standards of education and some were military officers simply rewarded with senior administrative positions. This led to inefficiency.
French administration in Senegal.
In Senegal, the policy of assimilation was only applied in the four communes of St.Louis, Goree, Rufisque and Dakar. In the rest of the country, African chiefs who ruled were put I three grades namely;Chefs de province: - equivalent of the paramount chiefs, they were usually successors of the pre-colonial chiefs.
Chefs de Canton: - these were ordinary people appointed by the French officials due to their ability, to be charge of locations. They kept register of taxpayers the location, helped the government in conscription of Africans into the army and assisted in mobilizing forced labour for road construction and other public works.
Chefs de village:- these were usually traditional heads of the community(village) who were given the responsibility of collecting taxes, maintenance of law and order, organizing relief during floods and locust invasion and maintaining roads in their areas.
The privileges which were enjoyed by assimilated Africans in the four communes of Senegal included;
Economic privileges
- They were exempted from forced labour.
- They were allowed to work in France.
- They were exempted from paying taxes.
- They were allowed trading rights like the French people.
Political privileges
- They were allowed to send representatives to the French Chamber of Deputies.
- They were enfranchised like the French people in France (right to vote)
- They enjoyed the rights of the French Judicial System like the French.
- They were allowed to operate Local Authority’ structures which were similar to those in France.
- They were allowed to retain Muslim law.
- They were exempted from arbitrary arrest/through the Indigenization policy.
Characteristics of assimilation.
- Administrative assimilation. There was an administrative relationship between the French colonies and their mother country. Colonies were regarded as overseas provinces.
- Political assimilation. The colonies were represented in the French chamber of deputies thus maintaining a close political identity.
- Economic assimilation. The French currency was used in the colonies to enhance the economic relationship.
- Personal assimilation. Africans in the Quatre communes were given French citizenship and other privileges enjoyed by French citizens.
Reasons why assimilation was successful in the four communes.
- There was a high percentage of Mullato population within the communes, who readily accepted the French culture making it easy for the French to apply assimilation.
- Africans were familiar with Europeans and their culture due to long interaction with them through trade.
- Many people had converted to Christianity and this made it possible for the French to apply their policy.
Factors that undermined the application of the French policy of assimilation in West Africa.
- There was opposition by local people who did not want the French to interfere with their culture.
- The Traditional African rulers resisted the policy since they did not want to lose their authority and influence over the assimilated people.
- The French traders in West Africa also opposed the system they viewed assimilated Africans as a potential threat to their commercial monopoly in the region.
- The policy of assimilation ran the risk of undermining the very foundation of French colonialism, as it was not possible to exploit Africans who had attained the assimile status.
- Missionary school system of education undermined the French policy of assimilation since there was segregation in provision of mission education.
- Nationalism conflicted with the policy of assimilation.
- Assimilation was becoming too expensive to the French government especially because West African colonies were not self-supporting yet.
- The vastness of the French colonies made it difficult to supervise the implementation of the policy.
- Muslims resisted fiercely the French attempt to convert them to Christianity.
- Racial discrimination against the indigenous people also contributed to the failure of the system. This is because many Frenchmen never accepted assimilated Africans as their equals.
- The French citizens in the motherland opposed the policy as they feared being outnumbered in the chamber of deputies.
Ways in which Nationalism undermined the policy of Assimilation in French West Africa.
- It emphasized loyalty or devotion to one’s country and national independence or separatism, which were against the policy of assimilation.
- Nationalists agitated for boycott of anything of French origin.
- The nationalists created awareness on the value of African culture and systems; this encouraged Africans to condemn assimilation.
- The nationalists created awareness on the importance of African unity which exposed the hypocrisy of assimilation
Consequences of assimilation in Senegal.
- The policy of assimilation undermined African cultures, as many Africans embraced the French culture. For instance, the French language became the official language in the colony.
- The authority of traditional African leaders was eroded and even many were replaced by the assimilated Africans.
- The colony was incorporated into the French republic and regarded as an overseas province of France.
- Africans from Senegal were allowed to participate in the political matters of France. Some Senegalese like Blaise Diagne were elected as deputies in the French parliament.
- The spread of Islam was greatly frustrated, especially in the four communes where Africans were converted to Christianity.
- A great rift emerged between the assimilated Africans , who were regarded as French citizens and the rest of African communities , who were subjected to taxation and forced labour
The policy of association.
Under this system, the French colonial government was to respect the cultures of her colonial peoples and allow them to develop independently rather than force them to adopt French civilization and culture. Unlike the assimilated Africans, subjects retained their cultural practices e.g polygamy and Islam. The subject came under a system of law known as indigenat where the subject could suffer arbitrary arrest or be forced to serve a longer period in the army than assimilated citizens.Why the French government replaced the policy of assimilation with that of association in 1945.
- The French had realized that assimilation would lead to equality between them and the colonized people.
- Assimilation was too expensive especially because West African colonies were not self-supporting yet.
- The method clashed with the commercial interests. The French businesspersons and their friends in the colonial administration saw Africans as source of cheap labour. They therefore disapproved the idea of uplifting them.
- The French had realized that not all the colonial people could be assimilated. Only the elite ones among them could. Association aimed at transforming the Native elites into Frenchmen while allowing the other masses to learn enough French for communication purposes.
- They had realized that there was need to allow the colonies to enjoy the freedom of developing according to existing traditional political and social structure. / respect for the culture of her colonies.
The similarities between the French and the British colonial administrations
- To help stop slave trade since slaves would no longer be needed to ferry goods to and from the coast.
- To provide quick, safe and convenient means of transport for government administrators/troops
- Open up Kenya for economic development/to stop slave trade/promote legitimate trade
- To maintain law and order so that economic development could be achieved.
- To make Africans more productive and able to generate revenue in form of tax to the colonial government.
- To activate interior trade. To enable transportation of imported goods to the interior of the colony.
Constitutions and Constitution Making
ATIKA SCHOOL HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT NOTES
The constitution of Kenya is a supreme law that binds all people and all state organs at national and county level. It outlines the structure of government, defines the powers and prerogatives of the head of state, states the compositions, functions and powers of parliament, states the compositions of the executives and outlines the duties and rights of the citizens.
Constitutions vary in various countries depending on different experiences and their form is determined by the following.
- The historical background of a country
- Geographical factors. For example the numerous islands of Japan must be catered for in their constitution
- Religious beliefs of the people. Some countries have the Islamic Sharia law in their constitution e.g Libya and Somali
- Race composition of a country. For example, in South Africa the apartheid racial policy had been included in their constitution.
Functions of a constitution
- The constitution provides the legal ground from which the laws of the country are made.
- It spells out the powers of government and its relationship to the governed.
- It spells out the rights and duties of all citizens. It also provides the options a citizen has, legally, if those rights and freedoms are violated.
Types of constitutions.
1. Written constitution
- This is a constitution in which the basic principles concerning the organization of government, powers of its various agencies and rights of the subjects are consciously written down in one document.
- The first country to adopt a written constitution was USA after she attained political independence from Britain on 4th July 1776. France adopted it in 1791following the French revolution of 1789. The primary objective of these adoptions was to include the rights of the citizens to avoid abuse by those in power.
- Other countries with written constitutions include many European, African, Latin American and Asian countries. Kenya also has a written constitution.
Characteristics of a written constitution.
- It acts as a standard of reference to which the acts of the government of the day may always be compared.
- It is a rigid document that cannot be altered easily.
- It is only amended through a clearly spelt out procedure which is followed to the letter.
- There must be a special body entrusted by the legislature with the work of drafting the constitution.
- Once drafted the constitution must get the approval of the legislature.
Advantages of a written constitution.
- Since the procedures of amending a constitution are clearly spelled out, it is not easy for politicians or other interest groups in the society to alter it.
- In case of a crisis, the constitution provides very clear guidelines on the procedures to be followed, thus restoring stability in the country.
- Since a written constitution is rigid, it therefore recognizes that there are fundamentals in a state, e.g rights of citizens, powers and duties of the president, which should never be easily changed. Change can only be done after adequate consideration.
- It is fundamental to a newly formed nation so as to take off in an orderly and organized manner.
- A written constitution is important to ensure that the identity of the various groups are preserved and maintained in a country with diverse racial groupings, religion and ethnic composition.
- Since it is arrived at after thorough and careful consideration by all, it therefore unites the people in the nation as it would have acquired recognition and acceptance from the majority of the citizens
Disadvantages of a written constitution.
- Due to its rigidity, it can fail to respond to changing circumstances and can therefore easily become obsolete.
- A written constitution tends to make the judiciary too powerful as it I the only body that interprets the document. Where the executive and the legislature control the judiciary, the constitution can easily be manipulated.
- Some written constitutions are too detailed and rarely understood by the ordinary citizens.
- The procedure for amending the constitution is slow and costly. This causes delays which could lead to civil disorder in a society
2. Unwritten constitution
Sources of British constitution.
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Statutes. This refers to an Act of Parliament. Examples of statutes that comprise the British constitution are;
- Act of Union with Scotland of 1707 that determined the territorial boundaries within which the United Kingdom’s constitution operates.
- Parliament Act of 1911 that governs the relationship between the House of Commons and the House of Representatives
- The Reform Acts of 1832 and 1834 which determine succession to the throne.
- Customs. This refers to ancient or traditional practices or the common law. For example, the first born inheriting the throne.
- Laws of precedents. Past accepted principles may be applied to a new set of facts in a judgment and this may eventually become part of the law of the land.
- Customs of parliament. House procedures including standing orders and other regulations are part of the British constitution.
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Historical documents. The following two Important documents form part of the British constitution;
- The Magna Carta (1215AD) that contained the promises by the England King that he would not levy taxes outside the three legal feudal taxes without the consent of the legal counsel.
- The Petition of Right (1628) in which King Charles I agreed not to levy taxes unless through the Act of Parliament.
- The Conventions and Practices that have become respected over the years are also part of the British constitution.
Advantages of unwritten constitution
- It is flexible and adaptable to changing circumstances in the society. This is especially valuable during periods of rapid socio-economic and political changes.
- It is indigenous and therefore suited for a state.
- It can be changed by ordinary legislative process.
- It provides continuity with the nation’s traditions and is therefore accepted and respected by the people.
Disadvantages of an unwritten constitution.
- It gives the courts too much work in handling matters as they search for constitutional principles not only in judicial decisions but in different statutes and customs.
- Because of the nature of the unwritten constitution, it is not easy to protect the rights of people effectively as the fundamentals of the state are not recorded in a few or a single document.
- An unwritten constitution tends to be vague and indefinite as compared to the written constitution.
- An unwritten constitution presupposes that the people are politically conscious and alert and will ensure that their rights and liberties are respected.
Features/qualities of a good constitution.
- Definiteness; it must depict clear intelligence and one which facilitates thinking. It must define its content clearly.
- It should be comprehensive/ it must be short but inclusive of all the issues involved in government operation.
- Should be durable and elastic/ it should neither be too rigid to amend or change nor so flexible as to encourage interference of its basic principle.
- Should be able to protect fundamental rights and freedom of citizen/a bill of rights must be provided for in the constitution, showing the extent to which the government can interfere with individual rights.
- Amendment procedure must be stated clearly.
- The constitution must be representative of the diverse social and political spectrum of the people.
- It must exhibit supremacy of the people/ it must make the will of the people as the basis of government.
- It must stipulate the choice of government through free and fair elections
- Statement of national wealth. /It must have a clear statement on how resources are to be managed and how wealth created is to be distributed.
Constitution making process in Kenya in pre-colonial, colonial and post colonial eras.
- The rules and regulation that formed the constitutional basis of pre-colonial communities in Kenya were mainly formulated by the councils of elders and then handed down from generation to generation.
- The constitution was unwritten constitution guiding only the political, economic and socio-cultural activities
- Kenya was under the British colonial rule after the Berlin Conference upto 1963. The constitutional developments in the country were greatly influenced by the settlement of immigrant communities like the white settlers, the Asians and Christian missionaries. These communities competed with the Africans for control of economic resources and political power.
- The turning point in Kenya’s pre-colonial constitutional developments was the outbreak of Mau Mau war and subsequent declaration of a State Of Emergency on 20th October 1952 by Sir Evelyn Barring.
- When the colonial secretary Oliver Lyttelton visited Kenya in 1954, he proposed the following constitutional reforms.
- Establishment of a multi-racial council of ministers representing the three races setting ground for two Indian and one African minister (B. A Ohanga became the first African Minister)
- It Proposed direct representation of Africans in the LEGCO
- Lifting the ban on African political parties/district associations.
- In 1958, a new constitution was proposed by Lennox Boyd. The constitution led to increased number of elected Africans in the legislative council (from 8 to 14). It led to introduction of multi-racial representation in the legislative council. It led to the increase of the number of African ministers to two.
- The African elected members demanded for a constitutional conference culminating into the independence constitution.
The first Lancaster House Conference (1960)
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Attended by all members of Legco and two nominated members, the conference received the following demands;
- Africans demanded for true democracy, where one man would have one vote.
- The Arabs wanted to retain the ten-mile coastal strip, while Somalis wanted reunification with Somalia.
- Michael Blundell, representing a section of Europeans demanded for a multi-racial government while Captain Briggs representing the white extremists demanded for creation of provinces along racial lines.
- Africans demanded for true democracy, where one man would have one vote.
- All these proposal were moderated by the British government
- The period after the first Lancaster House conference witnessed a lot of differences among Africans and among other races. Among the Africans, the differences culminated into the formation of KANU in March 1960 at Kiambu with James Gichuru as president and KADU in Ngong Town with Ronald Ngala as the president.
- The main difference between KADU and KANU was that while KANU was advocating gor a unitary government, KADU wanted a federal system
- When KANU refused to form government despite winning the elections, demanding for the release of Jomo Kenyatta, KADU formed a rather minority government that was heavily dominated by the colonial officials. Such a government was rejected by most people thus creating instability that led to the British Authorities calling for the second Lancaster House Conference.
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The following important issues were discussed;
- The future of the coastal strip that belonged to the sultan prior to colonialism.
- The future of North Eastern Province(North Frontier District)
- Security of the minority.
- The future of the coastal strip that belonged to the sultan prior to colonialism.
- The participants in the formulation of the independence constitution were representatives of various political parties: - Paul Ngei (APP), KADU and KANU. Others were representatives of the Asian and European communities.
- The 1962 conference settled for a federal structure with a strong central government.
- A coalition government was formed briefly but when the 1962 constitution was promulgated, it was followed by a general election in May 1963.
- The third and final conference in 1963 resulted in the drafting and adoption of Kenya's first independent Constitution by the British Parliament
- The 1963 constitution established a parliamentary system with executive powers vested in a cabinet headed by a Prime Minister,
- The Queen of England remained Head of State.
Independence (1963)
- Kanu won the May elections and Kenya Attained internal self-government with Jomo Kenyatta as the first Prime Minister on 1st June 1963. Kenya attained full independence on 12th December 1963 when the Queen ceased to be the head of state.
- Kenya has been using the Independence Constitution upto August 2010 though with so many amendments.
- The independence constitution provided for a regional/majimbo government with each of the seven regions having a regional assembly and president. The boundaries of the regions were given protection in the constitution.
- It also provided for a bicameral parliament consisting of the senate and the house of representatives/upper house and lower house. The lower house comprised 117 elected members and 12 special members. The senate comprised 41 members representing the 41 administrative districts and one representing Nairobi city though the senate was subordinate to the House of Representatives, it had powers to authorize declaration of a state of emergence, 65% of the senators were required to approve the amendment of constitution. Also all Bills required approval of both houses.
- The constitution stipulated that the Prime Minister (appointed by the governor) was to be head of Government and Queen the Head of State, represented by the Governor General. The powers of the governor were defence of the country, foreign affairs, internal security and approval of legislation.
- The constitution recommended a multiparty system of government and the party with the majority of seats forming the government.
- It contained the Bill of Rights, which protected the individual’s rights. The Bill of rights was modeled on the European convention on Human Rights and Fundamental freedoms.
- The constitution provided for an elaborate scheme to protect the minority rights. The minorities in this case were the Europeans, Asians and some indigenous communities.
- Independent Electoral commission was set up consisting of the speakers of the two houses and a nominee of the Prime Minister. Also it comprised nominees representing the regions. This was to ensure impartiality and honesty in elections.
- The constitution provided for an independent and impartial judiciary to ensure justice and prevent corruption. Judges were accorded security of tenure which was extended to the Attorney General, the government’s principal legal advisor.
- It provided for public service commission. The aim was insulate the civil service recruitment and promotions from abuse and corruption.
- An independent land board.
Post –colonial Era (1963-2010).
- Like many former British colonies, Kenya started off with a west Minister system of government.
- The first Constitutional amendment in independent Kenya was in 1964. Kenya became a republic and the executive became presidential. The senate and regions were also abolished. A Constitutional review in June 1982 officially transformed Kenya into a one-party state.
- A parliamentary act in December 1991 repealed the one-party system provisions of the constitution and effectively established a multiparty system.
- The period after 1992 was influenced by Global issues like the decline of the cold war, collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989 and the intensified struggle for democracy all over the world.
- In 1997, the Inter Party Parliamentary Group (IPPG) was formed with membership from the Opposition and KANU mps. The aim was to come up with minimal constitutional reforms to level the ground before the 1997 general elections
- The KBC shall observe fairness in providing balanced all-inclusive political views in the news coverage.
- Membership of the Electoral Commission to be reviewed to accommodate the interest of the opposition.
- Registration of Parties would be done without unnecessary delay.
- The powers of the chiefs that would likely interfere with political activity at local level be contained.
- The police Act be amended to provide for politically impartial police force
- To repeal a number of laws restricting civil and political rights, ad abolition of the offence of sedition
It was now headed by Professor Yash Pal Ghai and comprised 15 commissioners. In June 2001, the CKRC was expanded to include other groups like the People’s commission following the amendment of the 1997 Constitution of Kenya Review A ct.
The CKRC act specified a 2 year time frame for completion of the review process. However, its activities were marred by controversy in 2002 and the ultimate dissolving of parliament in October 2002 by president Moi.
He even attempted to dissolve the commission, thanks to its being entrenched in the independence constitution. When the NARC government took over power in 2003, the review exercise was reviewed. The National Constitutional Conference was convened at Bomas of Kenya and came up with what came to known as the Bomas Draft constitution.
However the political elite did not support the Bomas Draft. In 2005, Parliament amended the constitution of Kenya Review Act to allow the Attorney General to come up with the Proposed New Constitution, popularly known as the Wako Draft The draft constitution was ultimately rejected by Kenyans at the constitutional referendum in 2005 because of disagreements amongst various stakeholders.
In December 2007, Kenyans participated in the general elections that were followed by Post Election Violence caused by the controversy that surrounded the results of the elections.
Steps towards realization of a new constitution in Kenya from 2008.
- On 28 February 2008 The National Accord and Reconciliation Act (NARA) was signed by President Kibaki and Prime Minister Raila Odinga .Agenda No 4 of this arrangement was a new process to finalize the long awaited constitution of Kenya The main provisions of the National Accord were:
- Establishment of a grand coalition government with two parties; PNU and ODM sharing power.
- Raila Odinga was to become Kenya’s second Prime minister after the position was created in the accord arrangement
- Two deputy Prime Minister Positions would be filled by the PNU and ODM parties respectively.
- Provision for An expanded cabinet with the two parties being accorded slots as per their proportion in the house.
- Establishment of a grand coalition government with two parties; PNU and ODM sharing power.
- In 2008 the Constitution of Kenya Review Act 2008 was passed and a Committee of Experts (CoE) was established as the main technical constitutional review organ to drive the process.
- The CoE was chaired by Nzamba Kitonga, the deputy chair was Ms Atsango Chesoni, other members were Ms Njoki Ndung'u, Mr Otiende Amolo,Mr Abdirashid Hussein, Mr Bobby Mkangi, Professor Christina Murray (South Africa), Dr Chaloka Beyani (Zambia) and Dr Frederick Ssempebwav (Uganda).
- 23 February 2009 Members of the CoE were appointed by the President were later on sworn in,
- On 17 November 2009 CoE released the draft to the public and invited views and comments on the draft constitution,
- By 23rd February 2010. CoE had submitted the final draft of constitution to the Parliamentary Select Committee.
- On 4th august 2010 Kenya held a Constitutional Referendum where the new constitution was overwhelmingly endorsed.
- On 28th august 2010, the new constitution was promulgated and became operational making Kenya the first independent African state to depart from the independence constitutions.
Stages in the constitution making process in Kenya since independence.
- Debate over contentious issues. Issues like the entrenchment of section 2A in the independence constitution in 1981 raised concerns among various stake holders and groups. The issue of whether to include the position of Prime Minister or not has also been debated for many years.
- Collection of public views. The Saitoti commission (the Constitution review commission established by Moi in 1990) had the objective of collecting views of Kenyans concerning how KANU was to operate in the best way possible. In June 2001, the CKRC, chaired by Yash Pal Ghai was mandated to collect views as part of the constitution review process.
- Civic education. in 2001, the Ghai Commission was mandated and funded to provide civic education .
- Convening of constitutional conferences. For example, The 2002 National Constitution Conference at Bomas of Kenya and other similar conferences.
- Drafting of the constitution. This involved both local and international experts who drafted the constitution between 2000 and 2010. This was mainly the work of the Ghai led CKRC and the Committee of experts led by Nzamba Gitonga.
- The referendum. During the 2005 referendum, the Wako Draft constitution was rejected. In August 2010, another referendum was held and the 2010 proposed New Constitution was approved.
- Promulgation of the constitution. On 27th of August 2010, President Mwai Kibaki presided over the promulgation of the new constitution of Kenya.
Constitutional Changes in Kenya since independence upto 2010.
- The 1963 independence constitution marked the end of colonial rule and transformed the colony into a dominion. It established a parliamentary system with executive powers vested in a cabinet headed by a Prime Minister, who is appointed by the Queen of England from the majority party in Parliament. The Queen of England remained Head of State as represented by the Governor General who was also the Commander-in-Chief
- By the 1st amendment Act 28 of 1964, published in November 1964, Kenya became a republic and the executive became presidential. The amendment outlined the criteria to be met by a presidential candidate. It made provision of a Vice President who would be appointed by the president from among the members of parliament. Jaramogi Oginga Odinga became the first occupant of that office.
- By The 2nd amendment Act 38 of 1964 published on 17th December 1964, the senate and regions were also abolished.
- 3rd amendment Act 14 of 1965, published on 8th June 1965, altered parliamentary Majority required for approval of a state of emergency to only a simple majority from the previous 65%. The term ‘region’ was replaced with ‘province.’ The amendment altered the title of Supreme Court.
- By the 4th amendment Act 16 of 1966, published on 12th April 1966, commonwealth citizens became eligible for Kenyan citizenship. Also any legislator jailed for six months or more or missed to attend eight consecutive parliamentary seatings without the speaker’s permission had to forfeit his/her parliamentary seat.
- On 28th April 1966, an amendment was passed, published on 30th April, to compel MPs who defected from sponsoring party, to resign from parliament and seek re-election. This amendment targeted Kenya People’s Union (KPU) of Jaramogi Odinga that had been formed that year. The amendment was published, tabled, debated, passed and received presidential assent within 48 hours. (it was nicknamed ‘the KPU amendment’).
- In May 1966, the Public Security Act was passed, published on 7th June 1966, empowering the president to detain a citizen without trial on grounds of being a threat to state security. The president also acquired power to control freedom of the press.
- In 1966, a constitutional amendment abolished the Bicameral Legislature and replaced it with a Unicameral Legislature, chosen directly by the electorate. The Act was published on 4th January 1967. The voting majority to change the Constitution was lowered to two-thirds of the MPs.
- In 1968, by the 9th amendment, published on 12th April 1968, the president was empowered to alter provincial and district boundaries. The act abolished the provincial councils and all representatives to the provincial and district boundaries. This marked the end of regionalism.
- In 1968, by the 10th amendment, Act 45 published on 12th July 1968, the procedure for presidential elections and succession in the event of his death was laid down. Also, that all candidates for a general election should be nominated by a political party. The act also gave the president power to nominate 13 MPs to replace the 12 specially elected members of the House of Representatives.
- In 1974, the age qualification for presidential candidates was also lowered to 35 from 40 years. The minimum voting age was altered from 21 to 18 years.
- In 1975, an amendment of the constitution empowered the president to pardon any election offender at his own discretion. This was done to favour Paul Ngei who been found guilty of an election offence. It was named ‘the Ngei Amendment’. The bill went through all the stages in one afternoon and received presidential assent the following day.
- In 1975, Kiswahili was declared the national language of the national assembly.
- In 1977, the Kenya court of appeal was established after the breakup of the East African Community.
- The 18th amendment Act passed in 1979 was the first one under president Moi. It provided that public officers had to resign six months in advance in order to qualify as candidates for parliamentary elections.
- In 1979, both Kiswahili and English were declared languages of the national assembly.
- By The 19th amendment Act of 1981 published in 1982, Kenya became a de jure one party state. KANU became the only lawful party in Kenya. The infamous section 2A was introduced in the constitution. (Kenya had been a de facto one party state between 1969 and 1982). The post of Chief Secretary was created to head the public service. The first occupant being Jeremiah Kiereini.
- By the 1985 20th amendment Act, the High Court began acting as a Court of Appeal.
- The 21st amendment Act passed in 1985 repealed Section 89 of the constitution which provided for the acquisition of Citizenship for anyone born in Kenya after December 11th 1963.
- In 1987, the security of tenure of the Attorney General, Chief Secretary, The Comptroller and Auditor–General was removed. The president could now dismiss them at will. Office of chief secretary was abolished.
- In 1988, the security of tenure of Puisine Judges and Chairman of Public Service Commission was removed. The removal of security of tenure of the above officers sparked a lot of condemnation from LSK and main stream churches.
- In 1988, an amendment was passé that provided the police with powers to hold a suspect in custody for upto fourteen days before taking him/ her to court if the crime constituted a capital offence. This is what led to detaining of persons suspected of opposing the government in the dingy basement of Nyayo House where some were tortured to death.
- 1990- Security of tenure of the offices of AG and Controller and Auditor –General was reinstated.
- A parliamentary act in December 1991 repealed the one-party system provisions (section 2A) of the constitution and effectively established a multiparty system. Multiparty elections were held the following year in December.
- In 1991, an amendment that was passed limited the tenure of the president to a maximum of two-five year terms.
- After 1997 elections, Parliament, on the initiative of the government, passed the Constitution of Kenya Review Act that set the pace for comprehensive constitutional reforms.
- A constitutional review commission, called the Constitution of Kenya Review Commission (CKRC), was established to provide civic education, seek public input and prepare a draft constitution.
- In October 2000, parliament passed a Bill entrenching the Constitution of Kenya Review Commission (CKRC) headed by Professor Yash Pal Ghai into the independence constitution.
- In 2005, Parliament amended the constitution of Kenya Review Act to allow the Attorney General to come up with the Proposed New Constitution, popularly known as the Wako Draft
- The draft constitution was ultimately rejected by Kenyans at the constitutional referendum in 2005 because of disagreements amongst various stakeholders.
- The rejection of the draft constitution by Kenyans in the referendum of 2005 meant that the 1963 constitution (as amended) remained the basic law of Kenya. .
- 28 February 2008The National Accord and Reconciliation Act (NARA) was signed by President Kibaki and Prime Minister Raila Odinga to end violence that erupted after the December 2007 presidential elections. Agenda No 4 of this arrangement calls for a new process to finalize the long awaited constitution of Kenya
- In 2008 the Constitution of Kenya Review Act 2008 was passed and a Committee of Experts (CoE) was established as the main technical constitutional review organ to drive the process. The CoE was chaired by Nzamba Kitonga, the deputy chair was Ms Atsango Chesoni, other members were Ms Njoki Ndung'u, Mr Otiende Amolo,Mr Abdirashid Hussein Mr Bobby Mkangi Professor Christina Murray (South Africa) Dr Chaloka Beyani (Zambia) and Dr Frederick Ssempebwav (Uganda.
- On 28th august 2010, the new constitution was promulgated and became operational making Kenya the first independent African state to depart from the independence constitution.
Key changes in the New Constitution.
- Reduction of president’s executive powers.
- Devolution of power to regions (creation of county and national governments.)
- Creation of the senate and national assembly to constitute parliament.
- On Citizenship, Birth and registration are the only recognize ways of attaining Kenyan citizenship. Dual citizenship is now recognized by the constitution.
- Recognition of the Kadhi’s courts as subordinate courts in the judicial court system.
- Expansion of the citizens’ Bill of Rights to guarantee equal representation for either gender in all governance structures.
FEATURES OF THE NEW CONSTITUTION.
- Why there was need to have a new constitution in Kenya.
- The need to meet the changing needs of the Kenyan society, e.g. due to population growth.
- The rise of gender sensitivity in Kenya/The need to address the rights of women which had not been adequately addressed in the outgoing constitution.
- The constant misuse of executive authority by the Moi and Kenyatta regime/ the need to give less or more power to the executive.
- The need to depart from the colonial policies that found their way into the outgoing constitution.
- The need to safeguard against social vices like corruption and land grabbing.
- The need to enhance unity and realize a liberal society due to political maturity.
Problems that Kenya faced in realization of a new constitutional dispensation.
- Party differences have been transferred to the constitution making process e.g. the NARC fallout, the ODM wrangles between Raila and Ruto. Etc.
- Sectarian interests based on tribe, religion, age, sex which is hard to satisfy. E.g in relation to creation of counties, Kadhis court and land laws.
- Attempts to project personality, individual or group interests rather than national interest into the process.
- Direct misinformation of the public and propaganda by politicians and other groups with selfish interests.
- Illiteracy and ignorance of the electorate and therefore easily misled.
- Tension and sometimes violence marred the whole review process.
- Limited financial resources and personnel
- Lack of unity of purpose and co-operation among existing political parties hence difficulty in hammering out compromise..
- Inadequate civic education/wrong civic education.
- Lack of consultation with all the interested stake holders.
- An attempt to tie the constitutional review process with election time-table, political programmes and interests.
Why Kenya’s new constitution is regarded as supreme.
- The Constitution is the supreme law of the Republic and binds all persons and all State organs at both levels of government.
- No person may claim or exercise State authority except as authorized under the Constitution.
- The validity or legality of the Constitution is not subject to challenge by or before any court or other State organ.
- Any law, including customary law that is inconsistent with the Constitution is void to the extent of the inconsistency, and any act or omission in contravention of the Constitution is invalid.
- The general rules of international law shall form part of the law of Kenya.
- Any treaty or convention ratified by Kenya shall form part of the law of Kenya under this Constitution.
Functions of the Kenyan constitution.
- It is the fundamental law of Kenya.
- It has helped in establishing the philosophy, character and structure of the Kenyan government.
- It has laid down principles which determine government power and duties.
- It r regulates, distributes and limits the functions of different institutions of the state.
- It spells out the basis of relationship between the Kenyans and the government and what rights should be in that relationship.
Role played by the Kenyan constitution in governing the country.
- It protects the interests of the weak in the society from those who would want to dominate them.
- It checks the powers of the dictatorial rulers.
- It defines how to rise to power hence preventing unnecessary power struggles.
- It provides for the separation of powers between the three arms of government.
- It defines the powers of those in authority hence preventing misuse of power.
- It defines relations with other countries
- It specifies on how a government is to be formed.
What is democracy?
Key aspects of a real democracy.
- Political aspect. The consent of the governed (expressed directly or indirectly through their elected representatives) must be sought when making political decisions. Public opinion must be given priority in governance.
- Social aspect. Human dignity must be valued at all times. Every individual should be free to organize his own lifestyle, hold and express opinions, enjoy company of others and join associations.
- Economic aspect. All citizens must be provided with equal opportunities. Exploitation of humans by fellow humans should be eliminated. Means of production should be nationalized to reduce inequalities between the rich and the poor.
Types of democracy
- Pure or direct democracy. This is where the people are directly involved and participate in decision-making. Such a democracy has an advantage in that the laws made are easily accepted by all the people since they feel they own the laws. This is common form of democracy in smaller organizations and was also used in ancient Greece.
- Indirect democracy. This is a type of democracy where citizens exercise their right in decision making not directly as individuals, but through their agreed representatives, elected by the citizens. Parliament acts as the basic institution in this type of democracy. The elected may make Appointments of persons to fill other positions like the Cabinet or carry out Nomination (hand-picking of additional representatives to join the elected ones.
- Constitutional Democracy. This is where democracy is exercised but within the limits of the constitution. The minority rights are guaranteed (freedom of expression, association and worship) It is also referred to as Liberal democracy and is a form of representative democracy.
Merits of democracy
- It is founded on the concept of the people and therefore leaders cannot ignore the people from whom they get authority to rule. It is most popular form of government.
- It recognizes equality among all the people without discrimination. It advocates equality before the law and anyone can rise to power regardless of one’s background or environment.
- It promotes patriotism or national pride as it urges people to participate in their governance. This reduces chances of a revolution
- It promotes liberty and peace as it advocates for peaceful coexistence. People develop a sense of cooperation. It can also promote international cooperation when extended beyond the borders.
- Since it is based on moral and educative values, democracy helps individuals to develop their personality. It develops initiative of the people and their sense of responsibility.
- Democracy balances the liberty of the individual with the power of the state.
Demerits of democracy.
- Democracy promotes dictatorship by the majority. The majority government by fulfilling the election pledges to please the supporting electorate ends up neglecting the political, social and economic interests of the minority who did not vote for it.
- Democracy encourages class struggle and corruption as only those that possess money can engage in intensive campaigns and get elected due to their influence. Then once elected, they pass laws that protect their interests.
- A democratic government is usually slow and wasteful since consultations have to be made when making a decision. Time and public resources are used in the process of seeking the views of the majority.
- The ethical value of democracy is questionable. It is not easy to find an honest, sincere man of good moral character being elected.
- Democracy may perpetuate incompetence since it is numbers which matter when choosing a leader not the leadership qualities. Where a majority of the electorate is ignorant, they may make poor decision during elections thus promoting incompetence.
- Although democracy is regarded as the rule of the majority, in essence, it is the elected minority who rule. Democracy is therefore as a form of dictatorship by the informed or elected minority.
Principles of democracy.
Principle-basic truth or general law.
- Freedom of speech, debate and enquiry. The basic healthy political culture among a group of people is based on open debate among citizens where they can express their views without fear.
- People’s participation as a whole in government. Through free, fair and regular elections, the government should remain a servant of the people and not master. Democracy is based on consent which can be withdrawn if the government fails to satisfy peoples’ expectations.
- Open and accountable media. The media must be open in their agenda and be held accountable to the public. Media monopolies should not be allowed to develop.
- Economic democracy. This implies the decentralization of economic power so that individuals and communities can be economically empowered to create and control their own wealth.
- Equality before the law. Judgment should be made in accordance with a written law, rather than in an arbitrary manner. Each citizen also has an equal ability to seek and receive justice.
Human rights
Why human rights are important.
- Rights are necessary for human beings to achieve a dignified life, fulfill their potential and to satisfy both their physical and spiritual needs.
- Rights are inherent to human beings. One has rights purely because they are human. They are not granted by the state.
- Rights empower citizens and residents by giving them control in decision making organs of the state.
- Rights justify special treatment of minorities and other special or disadvantaged groups or communities.
- Rights provide guidance to organs of state regarding the exercise of state power.
- Rights such as the right to vote, freedom of expression and of the press ensure the public access the necessary information necessary for the protection of democracy and ensure accountability of public authorities.
- Respect for human rights limits internal and external conflicts and strengthens national unity.
Classification of Human rights.
- Social economic and cultural rights. On the basis of these rights, the state is expected to pursue policies that enable individual, families or groups to earn a living and provide basic needs including education and medical care for themselves.
- Solidarity rights. These are rights that focus on the whole community. They require that the state to pursue policies which do not destroy natural resource or waste financial resources but instead create conditions for peaceful co-existence. These rights include the right to clean, healthy and sustainable environment, peace, and development.
- Civil and political rights. The rights include the right o vote, right to think and to have access to information. These rights ensure a secure space for the individual to pursue their values and interests.
Groups that monitor human rights in Kenya.
- Lawyers and Judges and other professionals including teachers.
- Religious groups
- Journalists (The media-print and electronic).
- The police force
- Association and special commissions, e.g business associations, women groups, the Kenya National Human Rights and Equality Commission (KNHREC), among others.
- pressure groups
Characteristics of human rights.
- They are universal. Human rights apply equally to everyone by virtue of being a human being.
- They are indivisible. One right cannot be applied if the other does not exist. They are inherent.
- Incase circumstance demand they can be suspended. For example during war, or during disease outbreak like Ebola or other contagious diseases, one may be denied the right to freedom of movement.
- Human rights have limitations. As people enjoy their rights, they should respect the rights of others.
United Nations Charter on human rights.
- This is a document that contains the basic human rights to which every person by virtue of being a human being is entitled to. It also reaffirms the equality of the rights of all men and women.
- The Universal Declaration if Human Rights was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10th December 1948.. Member states that signed the document are supposed to publicize the declaration in their countries
- The basic human rights contained in the Charter include;
- All human beings are born free and equal.
- Everyone is entitled to all rights and freedoms set forth in the declaration without discrimination on basis of sex, race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, racial origin birth or any other status.
- Everyone has a right to life, liberty and security.
- No one should be held in servitude or slavery or perform forced labour.
- Everyone has a right to recognition as a person before the law.
- Every person is equal before the law and has the right to equal protection and equal benefit of the law.
- Every person’s dignity should be respected and protected.
- Everyone has a right to nationality. One is free to change nationality.
- No person will be subjected to physical or psychological torture, corporal punishment or cruel and inhuman treatment.
- Everyone has a right to free movement and residence within the borders of each state.
- Everyone has a right to ownership of property alone as well as in association with others. State cannot take away ones property without proper compensation.
- Every citizen has a right to peaceful assembly and association.
- Every citizen is free to make political choices, which includes the right to form, or participate in forming, a political party and to participate in the governing process of the country.
- Every person has the right to the highest attainable standard of health, which includes the right to health care services, including reproductive health care.
- Every person has the right to accessible and adequate housing, and to reasonable standards of sanitation.
- Every person has the right to be free from hunger, and to have adequate food of acceptable quality.
- Every person has the right to clean and safe water in adequate quantities.
- Every person has the right to social security
- Every person has the right to education. Elementary education shall be compulsory while technical and professional education should be made generally available.
- Every person has the right to a clean and healthy environment. It is our duty to ensure that the environment is protected for the benefit of present and future generations.
- Every person, whether individually or as a group, has freedom to manifest any religion or belief through worship.
- An adult has the right to marry a person of the opposite sex, based on the free consent of the parties. Parties to such a union enjoy equal rights.
- Every person should be subjected to an efficient, lawful, reasonable and procedurally fair administrative action.
- Everyone has freedom of opinion and expression.
- Everyone has a right to seek and enjoy, in other countries, asylum from persecution. The right is however enjoyed only for political reasons.
- Everyone has a right to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal in the determination of one’s rights and obligations.
- Everyone has a right to protection of the law against interference or attacks against one’s property, home or correspondence.
- Everyone has a right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditions of work and protection against unemployment.
- Everyone has a right to leisure, which includes reasonable working hours and periodic holidays with pay.ght to freely participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts e.g drama, music, dance etc.
- However every person has various duties to the community in which they live.
- Freedom from torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.
Importance of the UN Charter on human rights.
- Protection of human rights, which is the core thing in the UN Charter, is important for the Establishment and maintenance of peace and security. Where there is violation of human rights, it becomes difficult to prevent conflict and maintain peace.
- Respect for human rights is an important requirement for efficiency and effectiveness in governance. The principle of non-discrimination, principle of international human rights law, enables one to strive for more equitable societies even within the level of resources available.
- Respect for human rights promotes development. National development strategies can only lead to tangible improvement in the lives of people if they have as their key objectives realization of economic, social and political rights.
- The UN Declaration provides a guideline for collective action towards eradication of poverty.
- The UN human rights mechanisms have given utmost attention to countering of terrorism as a way of protecting human rights.
- A SOCIETY that observes respect for human rights reduces the chance of conflict outbreak.
- The UN Charter on human rights is the foundation on which peace-making (peace-building and peace-keeping) is built. Any strategy to achieve peace anywhere is accompanied by strategies to uphold human rights like was the case in Yugoslavia.
- In recognition of human rights, the UN has played a key role in giving humanitarian assistance to the people of different countries suffering from effects of natural disasters and other emergencies.
- The UN Charter on Human rights promotes the rights of women and their empowerment by affirming the equal rights for women and fighting discrimination based on gender
- The UN Charter champions the rights of vulnerable groups like the minority migrant workers, abused children, indigenous people and persons with disabilities.
The Kenyan Bill of Rights
Importance of the Kenyan Bill Of Rights.
- a) States that every individual has the right to life
- b) It guarantees liberty to all citizens by forbidding enslavement, detention without trial etc.
- c) It protects the individual from all forms of torture and inhuman treatment
- d) It guarantees the protection of private property and allows Kenyans to own property anywhere in the country.
- e) It protects individuals’ freedom of conscience and religion.
- f) It guarantees the protection of the freedom of speech and expression
- g) It gives Kenyans the right to move freely throughout the country and to reside in any part of the country.
- h) It guarantees individuals against any form of discrimination on the basis of colour, creed, and gender.
- i) It protects individual against arbitrary search, arrest and entry into one’s property without his/her consent
- Rights and fundamental freedoms contained in the Kenyan Bill of Rights. 1. Right to life.
- Life begins at conception and no child should be deprived of life deliberately. Abortion is not therefore permitted unless occasioned by the need for emergency treatment or life of the mother is in danger.
- People who attempt to commit suicide are also punishable on the strength of their right 2. Equality and freedom from discrimination
- Every person is equal before the law and has the right to equal protection and equal benefit of the law. This means that both men and women are equal before the law. Any form of discrimination is illegal and is prohibited in the constitution.
3. Human dignity
- Every person’s dignity should be respected and protected. One must not ridicule or embarrass other members of society.
- This right protects a person from being detained without a good reason and without trial. No person will be subjected to physical or psychological torture, corporal punishment or cruel and inhuman treatment.
- No one should be held in servitude or slavery or perform forced labour. Every employer should treat his or her employees with dignity and not to force them to work.
- Every person has a right NOT to have him or herself, his or her property searched, or his or her possessions seized. Not revealing a person’s family or private affairs unnecessarily or private communications interfered with.
- Every citizen has a right to assemble and participate in peaceful demonstrations and even present petitions to public authorities.
- Every citizen is free to make political choices, which includes the right to form, or participate in forming, a political party and to participate in the activities of, a political party.
- Every citizen has the right to free, fair and regular elections based on universal suffrage and the free` expression of the will of the electors for any elective public body or office
- Every adult citizen has the right, without unreasonable restrictions, to be registered as a voter; to vote by secret ballot in any election or referendum and to be a candidate for public office, or office within a political party and, if elected, to hold office.
- Citizens have a right to free movement and ownership of property in any part of the country. Anyone is also free to leave the country or enter and remain in the country
- Every person has the right to the highest attainable standard of health, which includes the right to health care services, including reproductive health care.
- Every person has the right to accessible and adequate housing, and to reasonable standards of sanitation.
- Every person has the right to be free from hunger, and to have adequate food of acceptable quality.
- Every person has the right to clean and safe water in adequate quantities. Every person has the right to social security
- Every person has the right to education.
- A person shall not be denied emergency medical treatment.
- The State must provide appropriate social security to persons who are unable to support themselves and their dependants.
- Consumers have the right to goods and services of reasonable quality.
- Consumers have the right to the information necessary for them to gain full benefit from goods and services.
- Consumers have the right to the protection of their health, safety, and economic interests. Consumers have the right to compensation for loss or injury arising from defects in goods or services.
- Every worker has a right to fair labour practices like fair remuneration, reasonable working conditions, the right to join or practice in trade union activities and the right to go on strike.
- Every employer has a right to join an employers’ association and participate in its programmes and activities
- One must respect the right to fair labour practices of one’s employees
- Employees on the other hand must conduct themselves responsibly, even during strikes, to avoid causing physical injury to innocent people, or destroying property.
- Every person has the right to a clean and healthy environment. It is our duty to ensure that the environment is protected for the benefit of present and future generations.
- Every person, whether individually or as a group, has freedom to manifest any religion or belief through worship, practice, teaching or observance, including observance of day of worship. One cannot be denied employment or educational opportunity because of belonging to a particular religion or because of one’s belief or religion.
- A person cannot be forced to engage in any act that goes against his or her belief or religion. 15. Freedom of expression.
- This guarantees all Kenyans the freedom to seek, receive or impart ideas or information. It also guarantees freedom of artistic creativity, academic freedom, and freedom to conduct scientific research.
- The freedom and independence of the media is guaranteed. The state should not interfere with the media.
- Every person has a right to access information held by the state, or by others, which may be required for the protection of any right or fundamental freedom. The state is expected to make public any important information affecting the nation.
- Every person has a right to the correction or deletion of untrue or misleading information that affects the person.
- Every person has the right to form, join and participate in the activities of an association of any kind, provided that the association is not engaged in illegal activities, such as stealing or killing. 19. Protection of the right to property.
- Every person is entitled to own property either individually or as a group, in any part of the country. However the property has to be legally acquired.
- This right provides all Kenyans a fair opportunity to invest in property and thus, prosper. 20. Right to language and culture.
- Every person has the right to use a language, and embrace the culture of the person’s choice.
- Every person has the right to form or join cultural groups.
- Every person is also protected from being forced to join any such group.
- Each linguistic group is free to use their language, practice their culture, and form associations and other organs of the civil society.
- It is unacceptable to force another person to perform, observe or undergo any cultural practice or rite.
- An adult has the right to marry a person of the opposite sex, based on the free consent of the parties. Parties to such a union enjoy equal rights. Both parties have a responsibility to respect the rights of their spouses during marriage and even in the event of its dissolution.
- It is wrong to deny one’s spouse access to marital property after separation or divorce.
- The constitution also recognizes marriages conducted under traditional, religious, personal or family law. Marrying of underage persons and forced marriages are outlawed in the constitution.
- Every person should be subjected to an efficient, lawful, reasonable and procedurally fair administrative action. This promotes efficient administration in public offices.
- Everybody should access justice and a reasonable fee will be charged to enhance this, if required. If this is not free, many people will not access justice which will continue to be a preserve of the rich people.
An arrested person has;
- The right to be informed promptly in a language that the person understands of the reason for arrest, the right to remain silent and he consequences of not remaining silent.
- The right to remain silent. – The right of a person to choose to talk or to remain silent.
- The right to communicate with an advocate and other persons whose assistance is necessary (freedom of speech with all those who will assist him or her in the case.)
- The right of not being compelled to make any confession or admission that could be used in evidence against the person.
- The right t be held separately from persons serving a sentence ( should not be held in prisons alongside those already convicted)
- To be brought to court as soon as reasonably possible, as but not later than twenty four hours after being arrested.
- To be charged or be informed of the reason for the extension of detention or release, at the first court appearance.
- To be released on bond or bail, on reasonable conditions, pending a charge or trial, unless there are compelling reasons as to why one cannot be released. 25. Fair hearing.
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Every person has the right to have any dispute that can be resolved through a court hearing be resolved in such a manner that will accord him or her fair and public hearing. An accused person has the following rights;
- To be presumed innocent until proven otherwise.
- To be informed of the charges.
- To have adequate time and facilities to prepare a defence.
- To a public trial before a court.
- To have the trial begin and be concluded with few delays.
- To be present when being tried.
- To be represented by an advocate and be informed of this right immediately. Depending on the circumstances, the accused may be assigned an advocate by the state and at the state’s expense.
- To remain silent and not testify during the proceedings.
- To be informed in advance, of the evidence the prosecution intends to present, and to have reasonable access to that evidence.
- To challenge the evidence.
- To refuse to give self-incriminating evidence.
- To have the assistance of an interpreter if the accused person cannot understand the language used in the trial.
- If convicted, to appeal, or apply for review by a higher court.
- A person, who is detained, held in custody or imprisoned under the law, retains all rights and fundamental freedoms in the bill of rights. Except those that are impractical and inapplicable under the circumstances.
- A person who is detained or held in custody is entitled for an order Habeas Corpus- This is a law that states that a person who has been arrested should not be kept in prison longer than a particular period of time unless a judge in a court has decided that it is right. It is the right of the person who is detained, held in custody or imprisoned to be treated in a humane manner.
Application of the Kenyan bill of rights to specific groups of people in Kenya.
- A child refers to a young person from birth to full physical development. The term also refers to a person who has not attained the age of eighteen. The rights of children are contained in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, and International Agreement on the Rights of the Child put in place in 1990.
a) Survival rights
- Every child has the right to a name and nationality from birth.
- Every child has the right to basic nutrition, shelter and health care.
- Every child has the right to free and compulsory basic education.
- Every child has the right to parental care and protection, which includes equal responsibility of the mother and father to provide for the child, whether they are married to each other or not.
- Every child has the right to be protected from abuse, neglect, harmful cultural practices, all forms of violence, inhuman treatment and punishment, and hazardous or exploitative labour.
- Every child has the right not to be detained, except as a measure of last resort, and when detained, to be held for the shortest appropriate period of time.
- Every child has the right to separate from adults and in conditions that take account of the child’s sex and age.
- Every child has the right to a child’s best interests are of paramount importance in every matter concerning the child.
- Children should be protected from exploitation such as child labour.
- A person with any disability is entitled to be treated with dignity and respect and to be addressed and referred to in a manner that is not demeaning. A person with any disability is entitled
- A person with any disability is entitled to access educational institutions and facilities for persons with disabilities that are integrated into society to the extent compatible with the interests of the person.
- A person with any disability is entitled to reasonable access to all places, public transport and information.
- A person with any disability is entitled to use Sign language, Braille or other appropriate means of communication.
- A person with any disability is entitled to access materials and devices to overcome constraints arising from the person’s disability.
- Right to access relevant education and training.
- Right to have opportunities to associate, be represented and participate in political, social, economic and other spheres of life.
- Right to access employment.
- Youths are protected from harmful cultural practices and exploitation.
- The constitution specifies a marginalized community as;
- A community that because of its relatively small population has been unable to fully participate in the integrated social and economic life of Kenya as a whole.
- A traditional community that, out of need or desire to preserve its unique culture and identity from assimilation, has remained outside the integrated social and economic life of Kenya.
- An indigenous community that has retained maintained a traditional lifestyle and livelihood based on a hunter or gatherer economy.
- Pastoral persons and communities, whether nomadic or settled and because of their relative geographical location, have experienced only marginal participation in the integrated social and economic life of Kenya as a whole.
- Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to participate and are represented in governance and other spheres of life.
- Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to be provided special opportunities in educational and economic fields.
- Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to be provided special opportunities for access to employment.
- Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to develop their cultural values, languages and practices.
- Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to reasonable access to water, health services and infrastructure.
- Right to fully participate in the affairs of society.
- Right to pursue their personal development.
- Right to live in dignity and respect and be free from abuse.
- Right to receive reasonable care and assistance from their family and the State.
- This commission was entrenched in the Constitution of Kenya (2010) to replace the KNHRC. The commission constitutes at least three but not more than nine members appointed by the president with the approval of the national assembly.
- To protect the sovereignty of the people.
- To ensure secure observance by all state organs of democratic values and principles
- To promote constitutionalism
- It has a duty to promote respect for human rights and develop a culture of human rights in the republic.
- A duty to promote protection and observance of human rights in public and private institutions.
- It monitors, investigates and reports on the observance of human rights in all spheres of life in the republic, including observance by the national security organs.
- It receives and investigates complaints about alleged abuses of human rights and takes steps to secure appropriate redress where human rights have been violated.
- It acts as the principal organ of the state in ensuring compliance with obligations under treaties and conventions relating o human rights.
- It investigates any conduct in state affairs, or any act or omission in public administration in any sphere of government, which is alleged or suspected to be prejudicial or improper, or to result in any impropriety, or prejudice.
- It investigates complaints about abuse of power, unfair treatment, manifest injustice or unlawful, oppressive, unfair or unresponsive official conduct.
FORM 4 ATIKA SCHOOL HISTORY NOTES
World War I
World War I or the First World War was a war fought by many countries, which is why it is called a "world" war. It started in 1914 and ended in 1918. 135 countries took part in World War I, and more than 15,000,000 people died in the war.
World War One - Causes
The actual causes of the war were;
- The system of Alliances - An alliance is an agreement made between two or more countries to give each other help if it is needed. A number of alliances had been signed by countries between the years 1879 and 1914. For example, the Dual Alliance signed by Germany with Austria and Hungary in 1879 and later joined by Italy in 1882 to become the triple Alliance. This system led to the division of Europe into two antagonistic power blocs. It led to fear and suspicion between nations. It transformed local disputes into a general conflict. The Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy were directly opposed by the Entente powers of France and Russia and later included Great Britain to form the Triple Entente in 1907.
- Imperialism - Imperialism is when a country takes over new lands or countries and makes them subject to their rule. By 1900, the British Empire extended over five continents and France had control of large areas of Africa. With the rise of industrialism, countries needed new markets. The amount of lands 'owned' by Britain and France increased their rivalry with Germany who had entered the scramble to acquire colonies late and only had small areas of Africa.
- Economic rivalry - According to Marxism, the highest form of capitalism would ultimately lead to an inevitable war through economic rivalry. In the late 19th century, all European powers had industrialized or had started. Therefore, to match the needs of economy and industry, nations sought to expand their territory through imperialism in order to gain raw materials and markets. This then led to the clash of imperial interest between nations and ultimately led to conflict and war.
- Militarism - Militarism means that the army and military forces are given a high profile by the government. The growing European divide had led to an arms race between the main countries. The armies of both France and Germany had more than doubled between 1870 and 1914 and there was fierce competition between Britain and Germany for mastery of the seas. The British had introduced the 'Dreadnought', an effective battleship, in 1906. The Germans soon followed suit introducing their own battleships. The German, Von Schlieffen also drew up a plan of action that involved attacking France through Belgium if Russia made an attack on Germany.
- Nationalism - Nationalism means being a strong supporter of the rights and interests of one's country. The Congress of Vienna, held after Napoleon's exile to Elba, aimed to sort out problems in Europe. Delegates from Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia decided upon a new Europe that left both Germany and Italy as divided states. Strong nationalist elements led to the re-unification of Italy in 1861 and Germany in 1871. The settlement at the end of the Franco-Prussian war left France angry at the loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany and keen to regain their lost territory. Large areas of both Austria-Hungary and Serbia were home to differing nationalist groups, all of whom wanted freedom from the states in which they lived.
- Moroccan Crisis - In 1904 Morocco had been given to France by Britain, but the Moroccans wanted their independence. In 1905, Germany announced her support for Moroccan independence. War was narrowly avoided by a conference which allowed France to retain possession of Morocco. However, in 1911, the Germans were again protesting against French possession of Morocco. Britain supported France and Germany was persuaded to back down for part of French Congo.
The First Moroccan Crisis
The First Moroccan Crisis clearly indicated that Germany’s relation with France was at best fragile. In 1905 Morocco was one of the few African states not occupied by a European power. In May 1905 it was agreed that an international conference should be held on Morocco in Algeciras.The Algeciras Conference of 1906
The main aim was to decide what was to be done with regards to Morocco. The two main protagonists at Algeciras were France and Germany. However, it soon became very clear to Germany that other European powers had sided with France – Britain, Spain and Italy. The Algeciras Conference ended on April 7th 1906.The Germans got very little out of the conference. The plan to create a triple alliance or even a quadruple alliance to isolate Great Britain failed. Arguably, by the end of the conference, Britain and France had even closer ties to one another. A German presence in North Africa had also failed to materialize. The French media portrayed Germany as an inferior nation, much to the concern of the more experienced politicians in Paris. The Algeciras Conference may have ‘resolved’ the crisis in Morocco but the outcome clearly defined Europe into certain camps. At this conference Germany publicly lost out.The Agadir Crisis of 1911 (the Second Moroccan Crisis.)
The Agadir Crisis occurred in 1911 just four years after the First Moroccan Crisis. Germany’s attention was diverted after the 1905-06 crises by other issues, mainly building up her navy so that it rivaled the Royal Navy. As a result France spent five years having far more influence in Morocco than Germany. They backed the corrupt Sultan, Abdul Aziz, who was accused by some of his countrymen of selling out Morocco to the French. The half-brother of Aziz, Mulay Hafid, took a stand on behalf of the Moroccan people who proclaimed him Sultan in January 1908. Fez also came under attack. In April 1911 a decision was made in Germany to send troops to Fez to support the foreign contingent living there. The plan was to send German warships to Agadir and Mogador ostensibly to defend German citizens in Morocco. A gunboat, the ‘Panther’, was sent to Agadir on July 1st 1911.What part did the Agadir Crisis play in the outbreak of World War One?
The episode proved that Germany was hell-bent on trying to dominate Europe as a whole. Winston Churchill and David Lloyd George were among those who believed this.
7) Bosnian Crisis
In 1908, Austria-Hungary took over the former Turkish province of Bosnia. This angered Serbians who felt the province should be theirs. Serbia threatened Austria-Hungary with war. Russia, allied to Serbia, mobilized its forces. Germany, allied to Austria-Hungary mobilized its forces and prepared to threaten Russia. War was avoided when Russia backed down. There was, however, war in the Balkans between 1911 and 1912 when the Balkan states drove Turkey out of the area. The states then fought each other over which area should belong to which state. Austria-Hungary then intervened and forced Serbia to give up some of its acquisitions. Tension between Serbia and Austria-Hungary was high.8) The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
A secret society called Ujedinjenje Ili Smrt, ('Union or Death') or Black Hand was founded in Belgrade, an outgrowth of an older Serb nationalist group: Narodna Odbrana. When it was learned that the Heir-Apparent to the Austrian throne, Franz Ferdinand, was scheduled to visit Sarajevo in June of 1914, the Black Hand decided to assassinate him. Three young Bosnians were recruited, trained and equipped: Gavrilo Princip, Nedjelko Cabrinovic and Trifko Grabez. The murders of Franz Ferdinand and Sophie brought Austro-Serbian tensions to a head. As Vienna took a hard line against Serbia, the other powers in Europe took sides. The wheels of war gained speed. The Crisis of July turned into world war, just over thirty days after Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie were shot.System of Alliances.
By 1914, Europe had divided into two camps.- The Triple Alliance was Germany, Italy and Austria-Hungary.
- The Triple Entente was Britain, France and Russia.
1) The Triple Alliance
The alliance between Germany and Austria was natural. Both spoke the same language - German - and had a similar culture. Austria was in political trouble in the south-east of Europe - the Balkans. She needed the might of Germany to back her up if trouble got worse. Italy had joined these countries as she feared their power on her northern border.Each member of the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria and Italy) promised to help the others if they were attacked by another country. By the close of the war the Central Powers had been extended to incorporate Bulgaria and Turkey
2) The Triple Entente
The Entente Powers comprised a military alliance - driven by a variety of inter-related treaties - of France, Great Britain and Russia.The Entente alliance sprang from the military concerns of Germany's neighbours to east and west. Russia and France; accordingly in 1894 they signed an alliance based upon fears of growing German power. Britain subsequently forged alliances with both Russia and France once it became clear that Germany intended to construct a navy to match the Royal Navy in the late 1890s. Thus the Entente Alliance was not a formal alliance. The term was later replaced by the more general 'Allies' to include other nations including Italy and Japan.
THE COURSE OF THE WAR.
The Western Front was where most of the fighting between Germany and the Allies happened.
- The war in western front was fought in Belgium and France as per the Schlieffen plan. Count Alfred von Schlieffen, mastermind of the Schlieffen Plan, served as Germany's Chief of the Imperial General Staff from 1891 to 1905. It was Schlieffen's plan, long after he retired from army (1906) that was used for the August 1914 attack on France that was to trigger World War One. The Schlieffen Plan entailed an attack on France (while Russia mobilized her army) followed by an attack on Russia. The plan meant that Germany could place the bulk of her military might on one frontier and then move it to another.
- A devastating attack on France via neutral Belgium as soon as Russia had announced her intention to mobilise, which would take six weeks.
- A holding operation on the Russian/German border to be carried out if necessary and if required.
- Germany was to use 6 weeks to defeat France. a massive and successful surprise attack against France would be enough to put off Britain becoming involved in a continental war
- Germany would then use her modernised rail system to move troops quickly from the French operation to the Russian front. Russia would then be attacked and defeated.
- a) The actions of Russia determined when Germany would have to start her attack on France even if she was ready or not.
- b) It assumed that Russia would need six weeks to mobilise. But she mobilized faster than it was assumed.
- c) It assumed that Germany would defeat France in less than six weeks.
The German Army went into Belgium on the 4 August. On the same day, Great Britain started a war on Germany, because Britain was a friend of Belgium. When the Germans got to the Belgian city of Liège, they did finally push the Belgians out of the city, but it had taken longer than the German generals had planned.
On December 24-25, 1914, there was a temporary halt to the fighting on parts of the Western Front. This was the Christmas truce.
The initial force behind the Christmas Truce came from the Germans. Christmas was celebrated in full, with men visiting across the lines and gifts of food and tobacco being exchanged.
As Christmas ended, both sides reluctantly returned to war, the bonds forged at Christmas slowly eroded as units rotated out and the fighting became more ferocious. By 1915, the Western Front had become a stalemate as both sides engaged in trench warfare. The men on both sides took spades and dug lines of trenches went all the way from Switzerland to the North Sea, because they did not want to be killed. In front of the trenches, there was barbed wire that cut anyone who tried to climb over it, and mines that blew up anyone who tried to run across the "no man's land" that was in between the trenches. Gas was also an important weapon used.
The war in the west was static in the next three years and attempts by the military commanders on both sides to break the stalemate led to deaths of many soldiers. At the battle of the Somme in 1916 60,000 British men died in a single day. It was one of the bloodiest days in the history of the British army.
Seeking to shatter the Anglo-French lines, the German Chief of Staff, Erich von Falkenhayn, began planning a massive assault on the French city of Verdun. The Battle of Verdun lasted from February 21, 1916 until December 18, 1916 and was one of the longest and bloodiest battles of World War I. A brutal battle of attrition, Verdun cost the French an estimated 161,000 dead, 101,000 missing and 216,000 wounded. German losses were approximately 142,000 killed and 187,000 wounded.
Lakes in September 1914.
Importance of Britain’s supremacy at sea
- The British naval forces assisted in blocking the central powers particularly the Germans from accessing food and raw materials from other parts of the world. This derailed their war plans.
- Her naval supremacy enabled the allies to capture colonies of the central powers.
- The sea blockade enabled the allies to maintain uninterrupted communication with other allied forces, as well as safeguard the British food and raw material supplies from other parts of the world.
The final phase of World War 1
End of World War I.
- Russia’s withdrawal from the war after the Great Russian revolution.
- The declaration of war by the United States of America against the central powers.
The First Russian Revolution
The Second Russian Revolution
The Germans and Russians stopped fighting. This gave Germany lots of land in Eastern Europe and the Baltic Sea
USA entry into the war.
Germany also wrote a secret telegram note to Mexico suggesting that the two countries work together to attack the United States (the Zimmerman Telegram- because the person who sent it was named Arthur Zimmerman-the German foreign minister).
Other reasons why USA entered the war on the side of the Allies were;
- America was concerned with safeguarding her trade with Britain. (US– Anglo relationship was strong). USA was fully aware that the a defeat of Allied powers would cost her financial and industrial institutions
- The USA and British intelligence were able to link some Germany sympathizers with the industrial sabotage in factories and trade unions in the USA.
- Cruelty of the Germans led to the growth of anti-Germany feelings in the United States. Many of the Allies sympathizers had relatives in either France or Britain.
The socialist politicians declared Germany a republic and met with the Supreme Commander of the allied forces on 7th November 1918, Ferdinand Foch, to negotiate for end of the war with very stiff terms to the Germans.
The stiff terms given to the Germans included;
- Germany to withdraw from all occupied territories, including overseas colonies.
- All German forces west of the Rhine to be withdrawn.
- All German warships to surrender to the Allies.
- Occupation of some parts of Germany by the Allies.
- All Allied prisoners of war to be released.
War in the seas
Reasons why the allies won World War I.
- Allied powers had many supporters drawn from 25 states some of which were Britain, France, Belgium, Russia, Italy, USA, Japan and Portugal. They had more manpower than the central powers.
- Germany failure to effectively control her expensive colonies and others turned against her.
- USA entry into war on the side of the allies accelerated the defeat of the central powers. The industrial might of USA and her economic wealth helped the Allies to force the central powers to their knees.
- The Allies had able and focused political leaders like Lloyd George-the British Premier and Georges Clemenceau, the French Premier.
- Germans/axis powers made serious technical mistakes like invasion of the neutral Belgium by Germany which turned the world opinion against the central powers.
- Superior naval power of the Allies. The superiority of the British Royal Navy enabled the Allies to enforce a naval Blockade that caused severe food shortages among the central powers.
- Germany fought the war on many fronts.
- Germany was badly led down by her colleagues like Italy who decamped and Bulgaria and Austria-Hungary who had to be assisted all the time. Turkey on her part easily accepted defeat.
- The Allies had financial and industrial resources in Europe and in their colonies which were used to great advantage during the war.
- The Allies had powerful weapons e.g. they used Tankers, Aircraft and Battleships.
- The allies were united under the Command of General Foch which disadvantaged the central powers. German also used young and inexperienced soldiers after 1918 due to heavy causalities.
- The central powers were surrounded by the Allies as they lay in the centre of Europe. They also lacked an extensive coastline and thus were easily blockaded.
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What is citizenship?
Becoming a Kenyan Citizen
- By birth.
- By registration
1. Citizenship by birth
- A person is a citizen by birth if on the day of the person’s birth, whether or not the person is born in Kenya, either the mother or father of the person is a citizen.
- A child found in Kenya who is, or appears to be, less than eight years of age, and whose nationality and parents are not known, is presumed to be a citizen by birth.
- A person who is a Kenyan citizen by birth and who has ceased to be a Kenyan citizen because the person acquired citizenship of another country, is entitled on application to regain Kenyan citizenship.
2. Citizenship by registration
- If a person has been married to a Kenyan citizen for a period of at least seven years.
- If A person who has been lawfully resident in Kenya for a continuous period of at least seven years applies to be registered.
- If a child who is not a citizen, is adopted by a citizen and applies to be registered.
- Citizenship may be granted to individuals who are citizens of other countries that allow Kenyans citizenship in their countries.
Revocation of citizenship
- If a person acquired citizenship by fraud, false representation or concealment of any material fact.
- If the person has, during any war in which Kenya was engaged, unlawfully traded or communicated with an enemy or been engaged in or associated with any business that was knowingly carried on in such a manner as to assist an enemy in that war.
- If the person has, within five years after registration, been convicted of an offence and sentenced to imprisonment for a term of three years or longer.
- If a person has, at any time after registration, been convicted of treason, or of an offence for which a penalty of at least seven years imprisonment may be imposed
Citizenship by birth may be revoked under the following circumstance
- If the citizenship was acquired by fraud, false representation or concealment of any material fact by any person.
- If the nationality or parentage of the person becomes known, and reveals that the person was a citizen of another country.
- If the age of the person becomes known, and reveals that the person was older than eight years when found in Kenya.
The concept of “Dual citizenship”.
Rights and responsibilities of a Kenyan citizen.
Human rights
Components of human rights.
- Condition of life, which is necessary for development of human personality
- A Social character (since it presupposes existence of other members of the society)
- It must be enjoyed equally by all members of the society.
Human rights and fundamental freedoms are recognized and protected in the constitution because they preserve the dignity of individuals and communities, and promote social justice
The rights and freedoms protected in the Bill of Rights.
1. Right to life.
- Life begins at conception and no child should be deprived of life deliberately. Abortion is not therefore permitted unless occasioned by the need for emergency treatment or life of the mother is in danger.
- People who attempt to commit suicide are also punishable on the strength of their right
Limitations of the right to life
- A court of law can sentence one to death if found guilty of an offence punishable by death Instances when the right to life may be taken away;
- When one is defending one’s life or country as is the case during war.
- When defending one’s property against violent attack.
- When a law enforcement officer’s life is endangered, for example when apprehending armed criminals.
2. Equality and freedom from discrimination
3. Human dignity
4. Freedom and security of a person.
- This right protects a person from being detained without a good reason and without trial. No person will be subjected to physical or psychological torture, corporal punishment or cruel and inhuman treatment.
- Each citizen must also protect the freedom and security of others. It is unlawful for one to subject his or her spouse to either psychological or physical abuse.
5. Freedom from slavery, servitude and forced labour.
6. Right to privacy.
Exceptions to this right;
The law allows police officers, tax inspectors and other government agents to search private homes or business premises for purpose of health inspection, tax collection or any other officially sanctioned reason.
7. Right to assembly, demonstration, picketing and petition.
Responsibility;
Those demonstrating must not interfere with peace of others for example through harassment of motorists and property destruction.
8. Political rights
- Every citizen is free to make political choices, which includes the right to form, or participate in forming, a political party and to participate in the activities of, a political party.
- Every citizen has the right to free, fair and regular elections based on universal suffrage and the free` expression of the will of the electors for any elective public body or office
- Every adult citizen has the right, without unreasonable restrictions, to be registered as a voter; to vote by secret ballot in any election or referendum and to be a candidate for public office, or office within a political party and, if elected, to hold office.
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It is illegal to prevent other people from participating in elections, buy votes etc.
9. Freedom of movement and residence
Responsibility;
Citizens should not obstruct efforts of any citizen to move freely and reside and own property in any part of the country.
10. Economic and social rights
- Every person has the right to the highest attainable standard of health, which includes the right to health care services, including reproductive health care.
- Every person has the right to accessible and adequate housing, and to reasonable standards of sanitation.
- Every person has the right to be free from hunger, and to have adequate food of acceptable quality.
- Every person has the right to clean and safe water in adequate quantities. Every person has the right to social security
- Every person has the right to education.
- A person shall not be denied emergency medical treatment.
- The State must provide appropriate social security to persons who are unable to support themselves and their dependants.
Responsibility.
- Every citizen must pay tax.
11. Consumer rights
- Consumers have the right to goods and services of reasonable quality.
- Consumers have the right to the information necessary for them to gain full benefit from goods and services.
- Consumers have the right to the protection of their health, safety, and economic interests. Consumers have the right to compensation for loss or injury arising from defects in goods or services.
- It is one’s responsibility to question the quality of goods and services being offered, to enable one get value for money.
- The traders and other service providers have a responsibility to provide quality goods and services to fellow citizens.
- They should give truthful information when advertising their products.
12. Right to fair labour practices.
Responsibility.
- One must respect the right to fair labour practices of one’s employees
- Employees on the other hand must conduct themselves responsibly, even during strikes, to avoid causing physical injury to innocent people, or destroying property.
13. Right to clean and healthy environment.
Every person has the right to a clean and healthy environment. It is our duty to ensure that the environment is protected for the benefit of present and future generations. The following are the obligations set by the government in order to achieve a clean and healthy environment.- Ensure sustainable exploitation, utilization, management and conservation of the environment
- Work to achieve and maintain a tree cover of at least ten percent of the land area of Kenya.
- Encourage public participation in management, protection and conservation of the environment.
- Establish systems of environmental impact assessment, environmental audit and monitoring of the environment.
- Eliminate processes and activities that are likely to endanger the environment.
- Utilize the environment and natural resources for the benefit of the people of Kenya.
- Protect and enhance intellectual property and indigenous knowledge of biodiversity and the genetic resources of the communities.
Responsibility.
14. Freedom of conscience, religion, belief and opinion.
Responsibility.
15. Freedom of expression.
Responsibility.
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- The freedom and independence of the media is guaranteed. The state should not interfere with the media.
- The media industry should report impartially and avoid inciting members of the public. The media should provide fair opportunity for the presentation of divergent views and dissenting opinions
- Every person has a right to access information held by the state, or by others, which may be required for the protection of any right or fundamental freedom. The state is expected to make public any important information affecting the nation.
- Every person has a right to the correction or deletion of untrue or misleading information that affects the person.
- A person should not misrepresent the information accessed, or misuse it for selfish gain. It is also illegal to sell public information for monetary gain.
- Every person has the right to form, join and participate in the activities of an association of any kind, provided that the association is not engaged in illegal activities, such as stealing or killing.
- Every person is entitled to own property either individually or as a group, in any part of the country. However the property has to be legally acquired.
- This right provides all Kenyans a fair opportunity to invest in property and thus, prosper.
- All citizens must respect this right. It is unlawful for one to deprive a person of his or her property without good reason.
- The state, in acquiring privately owned property must ensure adequate compensation granted promptly and in full
- The state has an obligation to respect the intellectual property rights of the people of Kenya.
- Every person has the right to use a language, and embrace the culture of the person’s choice.
- Every person has the right to form or join cultural groups.
- Every person is also protected from being forced to join any such group.
- Each linguistic group is free to use their language, practice their culture, and form associations and other organs of the civil society.
- It is unacceptable to force another person to perform, observe or undergo any cultural practice or rite.
- This right should not be used to undermine national unity.
- Other citizens should be allowed the freedom to enjoy diverse culture, including members of one’s own family.
- An adult has the right to marry a person of the opposite sex, based on the free consent of the parties. Parties to such a union enjoy equal rights. Both parties have a responsibility to respect the rights of their spouses during marriage and even in the event of its dissolution.
- It is wrong to deny one’s spouse access to marital property after separation or divorce.
- The constitution also recognizes marriages conducted under traditional, religious, personal or family law. Marrying of underage persons and forced marriages are outlawed in the constitution.
- Every person should be subjected to an efficient, lawful, reasonable and procedurally fair administrative action. This promotes efficient administration in public offices.
- The officers of the state have a responsibility to accord every person fair administrative action The right requires that a person be given written reasons for any administrative action that will adversely affect a right or freedom of the person.
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23. Access to justice.
Responsibility.
24. Right of arrested persons.
An arrested person has;- The right to be informed promptly in a language that the person understands of the reason for arrest, the right to remain silent and he consequences of not remaining silent.
- The right to remain silent. – The right of a person to choose to talk or to remain silent.
- The right to communicate with an advocate and other persons whose assistance is necessary (freedom of speech with all those who will assist him or her in the case.)
- The right of not being compelled to make any confession or admission that could be used in evidence against the person.
- The right t be held separately from persons serving a sentence ( should not be held in prisons alongside those already convicted)
- To be brought to court as soon as reasonably possible, as but not later than twenty four hours after being arrested.
- To be charged or be informed of the reason for the extension of detention or release, at the first court appearance.
- To be released on bond or bail, on reasonable conditions, pending a charge or trial, unless there are compelling reasons as to why one cannot be released.
25. Fair hearing.
Every person has the right to have any dispute that can be resolved through a court hearing be resolved in such a manner that will accord him or her fair and public hearing. An accused person has the following rights;- To be presumed innocent until proven otherwise.
- To be informed of the charges.
- To have adequate time and facilities to prepare a defence.
- To a public trial before a court.
- To have the trial begin and be concluded with few delays.
- To be present when being tried.
- To be represented by an advocate and be informed of this right immediately. Depending on the circumstances, the accused may be assigned an advocate by the state and at the state’s expense.
- To remain silent and not testify during the proceedings.
- To be informed in advance, of the evidence the prosecution intends to present, and to have reasonable access to that evidence.
- To challenge the evidence.
- To refuse to give self-incriminating evidence.
- To have the assistance of an interpreter if the accused person cannot understand the language used in the trial.
- If convicted, to appeal, or apply for review by a higher court.
Responsibility.
- The accused person has the responsibility of obeying instructions of the court.
- They must behave well in court and outside the court
- They should respect the rights of the accusers as well as their advocates.
- Accused persons should behave as the law spells out while awaiting the verdict of the court. Whatever the verdict, they should abide by the law.
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26. Rights of persons detained, held in custody or imprisoned.
A person who is detained or held in custody is entitled for an order Habeas Corpus- This is a law that states that a person who has been arrested should not be kept in prison longer than a particular period of time unless a judge in a court has decided that it is right. It is the right of the person who is detained, held in custody or imprisoned to be treated in a humane manner.
Responsibility.
Fundamental rights that might not be limited;
- Freedom from torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.
- Freedom from slavery or servitude.
- The right to a fair trial.
- The right to an order of habeas corpus
Rights enjoyed by Children in Kenya
- Every child has the right to a name and nationality from birth
- Every child has the right to free and compulsory basic education.
- Every child has the right to basic nutrition, shelter and health care.
- Every child has the right to be protected from abuse, neglect, harmful cultural practices, all forms of violence, inhuman treatment and punishment, and hazardous or exploitative labour.
- Every child has the right to parental care and protection, which includes equal responsibility of the mother and father to provide for the child, whether they are married to each other or not.
- Every child has the right not to be detained, except as a measure of last resort, and when detained, to be held for the shortest appropriate period of time.
- Every child has the right to separate from adults and in conditions that take account of the child’s sex and age.
- Every child has the right to a child’s best interests are of paramount importance in every matter concerning the child.
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Rights enjoyed by Persons with disabilities in Kenya
- A person with any disability is entitled to be treated with dignity and respect and to be addressed and referred to in a manner that is not demeaning. A person with any disability is entitled
- A person with any disability is entitled to access educational institutions and facilities for persons with disabilities that are integrated into society to the extent compatible with the interests of the person.
- A person with any disability is entitled to reasonable access to all places, public transport and information.
- A person with any disability is entitled to use Sign language, Braille or other appropriate means of communication.
- A person with any disability is entitled to access materials and devices to overcome constraints arising from the person’s disability.
Rights of the Youth in Kenya
- Right to access relevant education and training.
- Right to have opportunities to associate, be represented and participate in political, social, economic and other spheres of life.
- Right to access employment.
- Youths are protected from harmful cultural practices and exploitation.
Rights of Minorities and marginalized groups in Kenya
- Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to participate and are represented in governance and other spheres of life.
- Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to be provided special opportunities in educational and economic fields.
- Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to be provided special opportunities for access to employment.
- Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to develop their cultural values, languages and practices.
- Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to reasonable access to water, health services and infrastructure.
Rights of older members of society in Kenya
- Right to fully participate in the affairs of society.
- Right to pursue their personal development.
- Right to live in dignity and respect and be free from abuse.
- Right to receive reasonable care and assistance from their family and the State.
Circumstances, which may force the Kenya government to limit the freedoms and rights of an individual
- Conviction of murder by a court of law limits the right to life
- When planning for a criminal activity one loses the freedom of movement/liberty
- When government develops a place one loses the freedom to own property
- Freedom of worship is denied if one uses it to undermine the government /create disunity
- Freedom of assembly can be limited if internal security is threatened
- Personal liberty can be denied if one has an infectious disease e.g. rift valley fever
Other responsibilities of a citizen
- Every person has a responsibility to contribute to positive development in the country by working hard and honestly, irrespective of the type of work or profession one is in.
- Every citizen is expected to participate in the democratic process. One has the moral responsibility to vote and even present him/herself to be voted for provided he/she fulfils all the requirements of the position.
- A responsible citizen should actively contribute views on matters affecting the community. This includes taking Part in national debates.
- A responsible citizen must be mindful of other peoples’ welfare. For example guiding visitors, assisting the disabled, the aged, children, as well as the less fortunate members of the society in ways in which they need the assistance.
- A good citizen should report law breakers, and even those suspected of having intentions to break the law to the relevant authorities.
- A responsible citizen should ensure proper utilization of public and private facilities including toilets, water points, post offices, public telephone Booths etc.
- A responsible citizen must maintain high moral and ethical standards. One must refrain from telling lies.
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Values of good citizenship - Values and principles of governance in Kenya.
- Patriotism, national unity, sharing and devolution of power, the rule of law, democracy and participation of the people.
- Human dignity, equity, social justice, inclusiveness, equality, human rights, non-discrimination and protection of the marginalized.
- Good governance, integrity, transparency and accountability.
- Sustainable development.
Values of good citizenship
- A good citizen has a duty to be patriotic to the country. He/she should be ready to place the interests of the country above one’s own selfish interests. One should volunteer for a national cause, for example engaging in freedom from hunger walk, helping victims of disasters, volunteering to help the country in times of war and using talents such a sports and music achieve personal goals and to promote the country.
- A good citizen must take part in activities that foster national unity including economic activities such as agriculture and trade which boost the economy.
- A good citizen participates in democratic process either by volunteering themselves to be elected, or by taking part in electing of leaders at national or county levels.
- A good citizen maintains and protects human dignity. He/she has an obligation to dissuade people from engaging in acts that deprive others of their human dignity such as mob justice.
- A good citizen observes equity by respecting the interests of every citizen, regardless of race, ethnicity or age.
- A good citizen respects social justice. A person who protests against the grabbing of public land and destruction of the environment such as Wangari Maathai demonstrates good citizenship.
- A good citizen respects inclusiveness in society. He/she does not ignore any member of society in making of decisions on matters affecting all citizens
- A good citizen respects equality of all citizens
- A good citizen respects human rights. he/she not only respects his /her right but also the rights of others in society
- A good citizen is expected to ensure that there is no discrimination against any member or section of the population to ensure the protection of the marginalized in the society.
- Good citizenship entails support for good governance. He/she has a duty to pay taxes to the government so that it can generate the revenue required to finance activities for the benefit of all.
- A good citizen has an obligation to maintain a high level of integrity in society. H/she should desist from corrupt practices and even report such acts to relevant authorities.
- A good citizen has a duty to maintain transparency and accountability. Public servants should be accountable for their actions and maintain high level of transparency.
- A good citizen supports government by taking part in projects that ensure sustainable development in the country- through participation in environment friendly projects.
Importance of being a good citizen
- Being a good citizen promotes peace and stability hence development.
- A good citizen promotes law and order hence enjoyment of rights and freedoms.
- Good citizenship promotes cordial relationship and social peace.
- It reduces government expenditure on security organs necessary for maintaining law and order.
- It promotes the good name of a country hence encourages tourism which is important for our development.
- It curbs against social vises like corruption, nepotism or tribalism since a good citizen can not indulge in such activities.
- It promotes good relationship with neighbors.
KCSE History Topical Questions
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What is National Integration?
Importance of National Integration
- (a) National integration Helps in social and economic development through enhanced national unity.
- (b) It develops a sense of national direction, facilitating unified goals and co-operation.
- (c) It enhances political stability and security by eliminating suspicion.
- (d) Promotes peaceful c-existence of different tribes and races hence leading to peace and harmony.
- (e) Promotes collective responsibility due to easier, more efficient and accurate communication.
- (f) It enables a country to develop a sense of direction as national goals are communicated to the people in the spirit of national integration.
- (g) It leads to achievement of easier, more accurate communication as the nation increases efforts of national integration.
In the absense of integration and lack of goodwill, this is what happens
How do proponents of violence look like?
Factors that promote national unity in Kenya
- a) The constitution. This is a set of rules agreed upon by a group of people who have chosen to live together. It provides for equality of all Kenyans before the law. It Guarantees equal opportunities to all Kenyans. It Provides protection to individuals against any form of discrimination/bill of rights. It Provides for a unitary government
- b) Education. The curriculum aims at ensuring that pupils and students focus on issues that unite them. The integrated education system encourages the children to accept one another as Kenyans. Teaching of history in schools encourages unity. Religious studies taught in schools promote respect for the Supreme Being and fellow human beings. Music and drama festivals in schools promote unity among students.
- c) One government. Our one government, with the three arms is recognized by each Kenyan as a body that runs the affairs of the nation.
- d) The presidency. Kenya has one president despite the diversity in parties and tribes. The presidency unites Kenyans.
- e) National language. The use of Kiswahili as the official language enables Kenyans to interact freely. Kiswahili became a national language in 1975. It helps overcome communication barriers and gives Kenyans a sense of belonging and identity
- f) Economic growth. The government attempts to provide social amenities to Kenyans without bias. It has tried to achieve equitable distribution of economic resources. Urbanization promotes socialization and co-existence among Kenyans. There also the use of a common currency giving Kenyans a sense of nationhood. The policy of offering equal employment opportunities to all Kenyans has enabled Kenyans to work in various parts of the country where they interact freely.
- g) National activities. National holidays remind Kenyans of their history. Agricultural shows enables different economic sectors display and advertize their goods. Games and sports promote unity as they bring together people of different communities for a common cause.
- h) Mass media. The mass media in Kenya is instrumental in ensuring that information is disseminated to all at the same time. It enables Kenyans from all pats to contribute to national debates.
- i) Symbols of National unity. National anthem promotes a sense of belonging among Kenyans and gives them an identity. Existence of the national flag symbolizes national unity.
- j) The government encourages social, economic interaction among Kenyans e.g. through marriages, worship etc.
Factors that undermine national unity in Kenya
Impunity creates undisputed war mongers
- a) Tribalism – this is the practice of favouring people who are from one’s own ethnic group in employment, admission to schools and allocation of resources. Others end up being discriminated against thus leading to hatred and enmity.
- b) Nepotism –this is the practice of people favouring their relatives. This vice is similar to tribalism
- c) The unequal distribution of resources causes animosity between those who are favoured and those who are not.
- d) Political wrangles / Ethnic conflicts / clashes discourage co-operation among the citizens.
- e) Corruption – asking for and offering of bribes to obtain and give services violates people’s rights to equal treatment. Corruption creates suspicion and hatred among people since those who cannot afford to bribe feel cheated and frustrated.
- f) Discrimination on the basis of gender denies people the right to participate equally in national development.
- g) Racism. This is discrimination on the basis of colour/ race. This creates hatred and suspicious among people. This was a common cause of disunity during the colonial days.
- h) Religious conflicts. In Kenya, conflicts between the Muslims and Catholics in 2000 led to destruction of a catholic church in Nairobi. Intolerance of other people’s religions creates disunity.
- i) Party membership. Multipartisma in Kenya has to some extend become a cause of disunity. The country regularly becomes polarized on party lines especially when we near general elections. Sometimes members of parties such as TNA, ODM, UDF, URP etc don’t see eye to eye during campaigns. There has also been discrimination on the basis of party membership.
- j) Poverty. When people lack basic needs such as food, education, health, shelter and clothing, anti-social behaviour arise. For example stealing and violence. Criminal activities create fear and suspicion and therefore discourage national unity.
- k) Ignorance. Lack of knowledge creates intolerance of other people’s views and lack of appreciation of the development taking place around. This may create unnecessary division.
History Paper 1 and 2 KCSE Past revision Papers
Steps have been taken by the Kenyan government to promote national integration since independence
- a) The government has developed national symbols like the flag, anthem, and the court of arms. These symbols have helped to identify us as one nation.
- b) Immediately after independence the then only major opposition party, KADU was disbanded to have a single party system. However this did not work for long as multipartisma was inevitably reintroduced.
- c) The government also set up a national curriculum in our educational institutions. This creates a sense of oneness despite the diversity.
- d) Declaring Kiswahili a national language. In 1975, Kiswahili was made a national language of communication as a step towards curbing rampant tribalism. This has greatly assisted as Kenyans of different diversity can communicate.
- e) Promotion and fostering Harambee spirit. This has led to Collective participation in development programmes by people from different groups which have promoted national unity.
- f) During the reign of president Moi the Nyayo philosophy of peace love and unity was introduced. It stressed the concept of being mindful of other people’s welfare. It is closely related to the principal of mutual social responsibility as embodied in African socialism.
- g) A new constitution in Kenya was promulgated in august 2010. This constitution promises a lot of hope in terms of unity as it may be an important tool of fighting all vices that have discouraged unity. It also stresses equal rights for all.
- h) The government has tried to bridge the gap between the rich and the poor through the creation of an equalization fund under the new constitution. Through this fund, development easily trickles down to reach the disadvantaged.
- i) Abolition of racial schools hence enrolling students of different backgrounds in the same schools. /Ethnic balance in public institutions.
- j) The teaching of history in schools has helped to create a sense of oneness as Kenyans realize that they share a common history.
- k) Promotion of games, sports, drama and cultural activities. National games at school and college level have been a source of interaction. This is a way of developing a common culture in the country
- l) The government has made use of media to propagate unity.
- m) Abolition of ethnic organizations and groupings.
- n) Promotion of national public service i.e. civil servants can serve anywhere in the country..
KCSE History Topical Questions
Conflict resolution
- Conflict refers to a situation in which people or groups are involved in serious disagreements, or disputes
- Conflict resolution refers to the process of settling a dispute when it occurs
Levels of conflicts found in Kenya
- a) Individual versus individual. This is where two people disagree for political, economic or social reasons.
- b) Group versus group. This type of conflict involves one group against another also due to political, social and economic reasons.
- c) Individual versus state. Such a conflict of an individual against the state may be political especially one feels his/her rights are being violated by the state.
- d) State versus state. This is a case where a state is in disagreement with another state maybe over boundary like was the case between kenya and Uganda during the reign if Idi Amin dada
- e) Group versus state. This may be caused by for example a trade union demanding the improvement of the terms and conditions of service of its members. For example the stand-off between KNUT and KUPPET on one hand and the government over harmonization of the salaries of teachers with those of civil servants in 2012 leading to a countrywide strike in September 2012.
The factors that cause conflict
- Difference in views arising from background beliefs, social and political standing and values.
- Economic differences. E.g. when consumers feel exploited by businessmen, when employees feel exploited by employers. Etc.
- Political differences based on ideological orientation i.e. capitalism versus socialism.
- Social differences, for example tribal clashes, religious conflicts, racial discrimination, age/sex differences.
- Limited land/economic resources-unfair distribution of land, mineral resources, water resources, etc.
-social-and-economic-developments-during-the-colonial-period-in-kenya.html
Peaceful methods of conflict resolution
- Fact finding- negotiation starts with finding out all the facts about the conflict that is to be solved. At this stage, the laws or guidelines to be followed are also looked at.
- Discussion. During this stage, a friendly environment is cultivated to enable discussion of workable solutions. This is usually a give and take situation.
- Reaching an agreement. The points of agreement reached should be fair to both parties with both feeling they have benefited. Each party should be willing to comprise for negotiation to succeed.
Arbitration procedure;
- a. Both sides involved in conflict presents their case as they know it to the arbitrator.
- b. After listening to the complainant’s story, the arbitrator makes questions to clarify some aspects of the story. The other group may also seek clarification.
- c. The second group then responds to the story by the first group by a representative. The arbitrator again asks questions for clarification.
- d. On grounds of applicable rules, the arbitrator should consider the facts and then make a decision.
- c) Mediation – a person who is not involved in the conflict tries to help the warring parties reach an amicable agreement. The parties involved must be willing to listen and come up with good ideas that can help them solve the disagreement.
Steps followed in mediation;
- Step 1. The mediator explains the rules as a means of helping the two parties reach an agreement and not imposing a decision on them.
- Step 2. Giving the two parties involved in the conflict chance to explain in their own words what the problem is. The Complainant explains first and then the defendant.
- Step 3. The mediator, after listening, summarizes the stories from each party and also identifies the facts.
- Step 4. The Mediator suggests the solutions and invites the two parties to give their opinions of the solutions proposed.
- Step 5. Depending on the two parties’ reaction, the solution is looked at afresh and then an acceptable solution identified.
- Step 6. The acceptable agreement reached is then written down and each party has to be committed to it.
e) Legislation – where the parliament passes laws to control conflict.
f) Workshops – this is where conflicting parties talk in the presence of facilitators and tries to work out a resolution to the problem.
g) Arms inspection – the government in order to build confidence and prevent misunderstanding between warring parties carries it out.
Negative methods of conflict resolution
b. Avoiding responsibility and refusing to accept defeat
c. Appeasement/compromise.
Under what circumstances violent method may be used in resolving conflict?
b. In case of serious social unrest
c. Striking students or workers, street mobs and bandits
ways-of-fighting-against-corruption-in-the-country-today.html
Definition of Transport
- Transport is the movement of people and from one place to another.
- Transportation is usually classified by the medium in which the movement occurs. For example, land, air and water transport.
a) Traditional means of transport
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- The means of transport at this category were land and water evolved.
- People move on land either by walking or by using other human powered transport.
- People also use domestic animals as a means of transportation
- Human powered transportation included carrying goods on their backs, heads and shoulders. Africans were used as porters during the slave trade. Human porterage still goes on in the modern society.
- Human porterage was cumbersome, slow and tiresome.
- Humans Carry limited amount of goods at particular time.
- It is not convenient over long distances
Animal transport
- Early human beings used the domesticated animals to carry loads on their backs or pull carts. Such animals are referred to as pack animals.
- In 500 AD a paddled collar was devised that rested on the animals’ shoulders. In 200 AD saddles were introduced in Egypt. Horse shoes were introduced in 700 AD
- The first animals to be used as pack animals; they were used in Egypt as early as 3400bc to carry weight upto 80kg. They were commonly used in the trade between Nubia and South Sudan. In Ukambani today, donkeys are used to fetch water.
- Referred to as draught animals used for ploughing and pulling carts and also transportation of goods and people.
- They were first rode but were later trained to pull wagons, chariots and passenger coaches.. in the Roman empire, they carried soldiers during war. (Soldiers on horseback are referred to as cavalry.
- a) It is highly susceptible to diseases.
- b) It cannot survive in tsetse fly infected areas.
- c) The weight limit of the load it can carry is 120kg
- d) They are not suitable in arid and semi-arid areas because they need a lot of water.
Mules.
- A crossbreed of a horse and a donkey, they are sterile and carry loads upto 110kg.they are mostly used in mountainous areas in central and southern Europe and in Mexico.
Also referred to as the ship of the desert. What makes a camel ideal in desert transport?
- a) It has a unique ability to survive for long without food and water.
- b) They have an incredible water storage capacity, they do not sweat lose much moisture.
- c) They have broad padded, two toed feet ideal for walking on desert sand.
- d) The nostrils have flaps which keep away sand during sandstorms.
- e) Its fur is thick enough to protect it from the sweltering desert heat by day and extreme cold conditions at night.
- f) The hump contains a lot of fat which the camel uses when it goes without eating Camels were commonly used during the trans-Saharan trade. They are in use in Kenya today among the Galla and Somali carrying weight upto 200kg.
- Members of the camel family found in central and south America. They carry load upto 40 kg.
- They are used in Asia to carry people and heavy loads upto 250kg. In India, they were used to transport people and goods during war in 2500BC.
- In Africa they were used in warfare in 270BC.
- A member of the cattle family and the only type of buffalo that has been domesticated. The cape buffalo of Africa and the Pygmy buffalo of Philippines have not been domesticated. It is used to pull ploughs and do other heavy work in India and south East Asia.
- A long-horned deer family breed used in the cold parts of Canada, Sweden and Norway for riding and transportation. It also provides milk, meat, hides and horns.
- Dog types like Bouriers were used to pull small carts and sledges, especially in the Arctic thus making transportation of gods and people easy. Dogs are also used in guiding blind people in sports and as pets at home.
- a) Pack animals can be used in largely inaccessible areas. The Llama, for example is used in the mountainous areas with narrow and meandering paths and steep cliffs. The camel is well adapted for deserts.
- b) Animals are cheap to maintain. They attract very little maintenance costs, since only feeding costs are incurred.
- c) Pack animals are safe as accidents are rare probably because they do not speed..
- d) Animals help to maintain the ecological balance since they do not interfere with the environment.
- e) Pack animals are capable of sensing danger. For example, horses and dogs can sniff out an enemy from a distance. This enhances security as dangerous confrontations with an enemy can easily be avoided.
- Animal transport is slow and tedious. The animals need to feed and drink along the way.
- Pack animals may be attacked by wild animals, disease- causing insects such as tsetse-flies and disease.
- Their movement is limited to the day only and cannot travel at night.
- They can only carry small loads as compared to vehicles.
- Some pack animals such as donkey are stubborn when tired and heavily loaded. The camel is only suited for the desert.
- Pack animals use is limited to short distances as they fatigue when they travel for long.
KCSE History revision papers and answers; also Mocks
The wheel
- The wheel was invented in sumeria at about 3000bc. By 2500BC, they had invented the spoked wheel used on horse drawn chariots. The chariot was used in Mesopotamia at around 2000BC and later spread to Egypt, Persia, Rome, china, Africa and Europe.
- The cart or wagon pulled by humans or animals was the first wheeled vehicle. The wheeled wagons and carts created the need for roads
- Today many types of wheels are in use. For example, the steering wheel for cars, turbines for jet engines and gyroscopes used in the automobile pilot technology.
- a) More roads were constructed to use wheel vehicles for transport
- b) Road transport became faster and efficient
- c) Bigger loads could be carried hence was cost effective – profitable
- d) It made the use of motor engine driven vehicles possible
- e) It enabled man to move over long distance to disseminated ideas and interact.
- Water transport has progressed from early rafts and canoes to the modern large passenger and freight ships.
- A raft is a simple floating structure, usually made by tying together floating material like animal skin, papyrus stalks or logs
- The earliest people to make rafts were the Australians. They made rafts called catamaran by tying logs together. Long poles were then used to drive the raft.
- Rafts however sank easily and required a lot of manpower upstream.
- A canoe was a narrow boat that was propelled by one or more paddles. The oldest canoe was made by stripping the bark from trees (bark canoes). Later a new canoe was made from a hollow on a log (dug-out canoe)
- In Kenya, canoes are used for transporting people and goods and for fishing in inland lakes and rivers.
- Boats are small vessels for travelling on water and are powered by oars, sails or motor. The Egyptians pioneered in the building of boats that used oars (a short wooden pole with a flat end) instead of paddles in 3000BC. The Phoenicians, Greeks and the Romans developed oar-driven trading vessels and warships.
- Humankind learned that the wind could move a boat more easily than human beings if the ship had a piece of cloth fixed on poles (sail). The Egyptians used the sailing ships by 3000BC on the Mediterranean and Red seas. The Greeks made sailing ships known as galleys which were used for trade and war. They used war galley known as triremes to defeat the Persians and Phoenicians.
- Sailing ships were depending on monsoon winds discovered by Hippalus. The Arabs and Persians relied on the monsoon winds to reach the east African coast.
- The Portuguese invented a three-masted ship called a caravel as the one used by Christopher Columbus and other explorers to sail to America and the Far East. The Carrack used by Vasco da Gama was five-masted to sail to east Africa. Ferdinand Magellan became the first person to sail around the world using a Sailing ship
- Fast sailing ships called clippers were made in 1840s in America. It was a long and narrow ship with sharp bows and almost straight sides.
- However, sailing ships could not sail on windy days and seasons. Some communities however still use sailing ships upto today for sports, fishing and leisure.
- By the 12th c AD, the magnetic compass was being used in navigation aid
- a) Technological development during the scientific age which enabled man to invent machines which could be used to manufacture various parts of cars , rails, airplanes, ships and motor boats.
- b) Expansion of geographical knowledge encouraged the development of transport so as to enable man to search new places faster and more safely.
- c) Introduction of specialization as a means of production which necessitated exchange o goods and services which could only be made possible through development of transport and communication.
- d) Population increase hence demands for more food and goods hence the need for essential transport system.
- e) In order to satisfy the desires of man there was need to develop a system of transport that would enable man to get the goods and services he needed so much.
- Modern means of transport.
- The invention of the wheel stimulated the construction of roads. The Roman soldiers built hard and straight roads all over Europe and North Africa by around 300 BC. The roads were built by digging a trench, 1.5metres deep which then would be packed with heavy stones or rocks.
- Rough and fine concrete was added to the foundation, then layers of gravel, chalk and cement. The road surface was slightly convex with deep trenches on the sides. Roman roads declined with the fall of the Roman Empire.
- Attempts to built better roads in Europe in the 18th c were made by George Wade (1673- 1748) built 400km of roads and John Metcalfe (17171-1810) built 290km of roads.
- However modern road construction is attributed to John McAdam (1756-1836). McAdam laid three layers of small broken stones packed tightly together. He then placed a layer of gravel which was bound together by the weight of a vehicle. These roads were called the flexible road or macadamized road. These roads were straight and had a smooth surface. They were widely used all over the world. They have curved surfaces and had a Good drainage system. They are cheap and durable.
- The roads were later improved by adding tar to produce a water proof surface called tarmac. By 1820, Britain had built 200,000km of road.
- a) They were durable with three layers of small broken stores
- b) They were cheap to construct using stones as the basic material for construction
- c) They had a smooth motoring surface since the gravel layer was bound together by the weight of vehicles
- d) They were straight hence reduced occurrence of accidents
- e) They were easily drained due to their smooth surface and being raised.
- In 1790, a Frenchman, de Divrac made the first bicycle which was pushed with the feet thus called a walkalong.
- A german named Baron Karl Drais invented a walkalong called draisine which had a steering bar connected to the front wheel
- In 1860, Ernes Michaux, a French locksmith, invented a bicycle with two wheels and pedals attached to the front wheel.
- In 1866, Piere Allement a Frenchman, was given the first patent on a bicycle, boneshaker. It had iron wheels fixed to wooden spokes.
- In 1873, a bicycle named a high-wheeler was introduced in England. The firs bicycle in England was made by Kirk Patrick Macmillan of Scotland.
- James Starley is referred to as the father of the cycle industry. In 1870, he invented the tension spoked wheel in which the rim and the hub were connected by wire spokes.
- John Dunlop invented the tyre filled with compressed air in 1888 which replaced the iron tyres and solid rubber tyres.
- In 1893, a bicycle with a diamond shaped frame with a roller-chain-drive and a compressed air wheel was invented.
- The bicycle is today used all over the world not only for transport, but also for sporting and leisure activities. The advantage of a bicycle is that it easily used on narrow paths and on a fairly level surface. It is also cheap and convenient.
- These are self-propelled power-driven land transportation devices used to transport people or goods, especially on land. The device converts fuel into energy to provide the power for the vehicle to move.
- The first attempt to power drive devices was the suggestion by a Swiss clergyman J.H Genevois in 1760 that wind springs be used to move wheels on roads.
- However the making of an engine that could drive a vehicle is attributed to a French engineer, Nicholas Joseph Cugnot (1725- 1804). He built a three wheeled steam-driven vehicle in 1769, though he abandoned his experiment prematurely.
- In 1883, a German, Gottlieb Daimler (1834-1900) produced a high speed petrol engine which he fitted on a wooden cycle in 1885. Karl Benz (1844-1929) fitted the same engine on a w tricycle in the same year.
- In 1886, Daimler made the first petrol driven car with four wheels. Benz built the first four wheeled Benz car in 1893. In the same year, an American, Charles Duryea (1862-1938) built the first gasoline powered automobile. The tyres made by Dunlop were fitted on these cars to make them more comfortable.
- The first car in the motor industry, Panhard-Hevassor, was made by a French company which had bought the rights to use Daimler’s engine.
- In 1903 in USA Henry Ford founded the Ford Motor Company in Detroit leading to mass production of cars in the world. For example the model TFord was developed in 1909.
- a) Roads have promoted trade within and between countries since goods are transported by road to various markets. This case is true in east Africa.
- b) Road transport has stimulated industrial development as raw materials to factories and manufactured goods to the market are easily transported.
- c)Development of towns and urban centres along roads has been as a result of improved road transport.
- d) Many countries earn a lot of foreign exchange from the sale of motor vehicles. For example Japan, Germany and USA.
- e) Employment opportunities are created as many people work in the motor vehicle industry while others are employed to construct and maintain roads.
- a) Since it is the commonest mode of transport, it reduces the cost of movement of goods and people as well as promoting social interaction.
- b) It is cheaper compared to other forms of transport. Roads are easier to construct and maintain when compared to railway transport.
- c) It is faster when compared to water and railway transport unless in the case of electric trains.
- d) Roads are flexible and link with other forms of transport such as water, railway and air.
- a) The high number of accidents on roads leads to loss of lives.
- b) Road transport is responsible for pollution which causes environmental degradation.
- c) Due to an increased number of vehicles on roads, traffic congestion is a major concern in most urban cities and towns.
- d) Roads may sometimes inconvenience the users when they become impassable.
- e) The quantity of goods carried is limited as roads cannot carry bulky goods compared to the railway.
- f) The use of roads is limited to specific areas. It cannot go beyond land e.g across the sea or lake.
- g) Construction of all-weather roads is expensive. Developing countries find themselves constrained by limited resources that are needed to construct all-weather roads.
- Railway lines are paths of parallel metal rails that allow a wheeled vehicle to move easily by reducing friction. Initially, they were used in 1800s to guide horse drawn wagons. Later the steam engine replaced horses as the means of transport.
- The development of modern railway was a gradual process that started in Britain and Germany with the use of wooden rails.
- A British engineer, Richard Trevithick (1771-1833) designed a steam engine that was small enough to be put on a truck. This he fitted on a railway locomotive which he had bought in 1804 to pull a cargo and passenger train in south Wales.
- Fenton, Murray and Wood of Leeds built the John Blenkinsopp locomotive in 1812. William Hedley built the puffing Billy in 1813.
- George Stephenson (1781-1845) a coal miner in Newcastle, England invented a locomotive engine called the Blucher which pulled eight laden wagons in 1814. He also built the world’s first public railway between Stockton and Darlington near Durham in 1825.
- In 1829, Stephenson and his son, Robert, built the most improved engine, the rocket, which had a speed of 48 km per hour. In 1830, he built the Northumbrian and the planet.
- In 1825, in the United States, Colonel John Stevens built a tiny experimental locomotive. In 1929, a major railway was built by the Delaware and Hudson Canal Company to serve a coal mine.
- Germany and Belgium had railroads by 1835, Russia by 1837, Spain by 1848 and Sweden by 1856.
- In 1892, a Germany Rudolf Diesel designed a heavy oil-driven-engine which replaced the steam engine. It was cheaper and efficient
- The first diesel railcar was used in 1913 in Sweden. Later diesel engines were replaced with electric engines which was an invention of the Siemens Brothers and John Hopkinson in Britain in 1883. The electric train from Paris to Lyon covers a distance of 212 km in one hour.
- Railway transport has remained a major mode of passenger travel. In Europe and Japan, major cities are connected by high speed passenger trains such as the French TGV (Train a’ Grange Vitesse) and the Japanese Shinkansen trains travelling at a speed of 300km/h.
- a) It has promoted the movement of people thus leading to increased social and cultural interaction. People can migrate easily in Europe thanks to the faster electric trains.
- b) It has promoted trade as goods, light, heavy or bulky, are transported efficiently to the markets. It also supplements the use of other forms of transport.
- c) It has stimulated industrial development since industrial products and raw materials can now be transported faster and in large quantities.
- d) Railway transport has stimulated the growth of urban centers. In Kenya for example, urban centres like Nairobi, Kisumu, Mombasa and voi either developed along the railway line or at the terminus.
- e) It has facilitated the spread of religious faiths and political ideas. This was the case in Kenya during the period of missionary work and colonization. In a way railway transport therefore facilitated European occupation of overseas colonies.
- f) There has been a significant improvement in agriculture since agricultural goods are transported more easily and faster using the railway.
- g) It has been a source of employment for many people I maintenance, engine driving etc.
- h) It has facilitated the exploitation of natural resources like mining, fisheries and forestry. The raw materials from these resources are transported faster using the railway.
- i) Railway transport has stimulated economic growth since it is a source of revenue for many governments.
- a) It is expensive to construct. The wagons are also expensive to buy and maintain.
- b) Railway transport lacks in flexibility. It can only pass through certain landscapes.
- c) Smoke emitted from the trains lead to environmental pollution.
- d) Railway accidents might be rare but when they happen, they are fatal. This was the case in Kenya in 1998 when 200 people lost their lives.
- e) Railway transport is not self sufficient. T has to be supplemented with road transport.
Canal vessels.
- A canal is an artificial river that is used to transport people and goods. It may be built to link a ricer and a lake, sea or a sea with a sea. Apart from transportation, their water may be used in irrigation like in the case of River Nile.
- Canals have been used for centuries for transportation. The earliest canal was built by the Europeans nearly 4000 years ago to link the river Nile and the Red sea.
- The longest canal, the Grand Canal in china is bout 1900km long and it links the Yangtze and Yellow rivers.
- Canal building in Europe was pioneered by the Romans who built them for transportation, irrigation and drainage. The Dutch, British and the French also constructed elaborate canals Canal building in the US began in 1817 and ended in 1825 with the construction of the Erie Canal which is 845 km long connecting Hudson River with Lake Erie. It is now known as the New York State Barge. Upto 1840, 4,800 km of canals had been constructed in USA.
- Another type of canals is the ship canals, for example the Suez Canal, Panama Canal and Kiel Canal, which are deeper. The Suez Canal in Egypt is 195 km long and links the Mediterranean Sea with the red sea. It was constructed between 1859 and 1869 by a French company under Ferdinand Lesseps. The Kiel Canal links the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. The Panama Canal was built by the USA Government between 1904 and 1914 linking the pacific and Atlantic oceans. It is the most important canal as it shortened the long and dangerous trip around the southern tip of south Arica.
- The St. Lawrence Seaway is the longest and most important inland waterway system in North America. It is 3,800 km long and was completed in 1855 in USA and 1895 in Canada.
History and Government Exams of 21st Century with marking schemes
- Steamships were made after the invention of the steam driven engine. The first attempt to make a steamship was made by Dr. Denis Papin of France when he fitted a steam engine to a boat and sailed along river Fulda in Hanover.
- In 1736, Jonathan Holls of Gloucestershire patented a steam tugboat but it was never tried.
- In 1774, Comte J B d’Auxiron of France experimented with a steamboat but also failed like Papin as it broke down.
- In 1775, C Perier became the first person to move a small boat powered by steam engine o river Seine in Paris.
- The first successful steamboat was built and tried out in1783 by a Frenchman called Marquis de Jouffrey on River Saone near Lyons in France.
- In America, John Fitch built a steamboat in 1787. It was used on river Delaware between Philadelphia and Trenton
- In 1809, William Symington and Miller Pat succeeded in constructing a wooden steamship that was used on the Forh-Clyde Canal in southern Scotland.
- In 1807, in America, Robert Fulton had invented a double –paddle-wheeled steamboat known as Clermont which began operating on the Hudson River.
- In1807, the phoenix became the first steamship that made regular voyage from Philadelphia to New York.
- In 1819, the savannah became the first ship equipped with a steam engine to cross the Atlantic Ocean.
- In 1853, the peninsular and oriental Line built the iron-screw steamer, Himalaya, the biggest vessel as at that time.
- John Elder invented a compound engine with two cylinders which reduced fuel consumption in steamships.
- In 1838, Sirius sailed from London to New York, the Great Western, without using sails crossed the Atlantic in 15 days from Bristol.
- In 1839, the Archimedes and the Robert F Stockton were built using Smith’s and Ericcson’s patent.
- The most important ship to cross the Atlantic was the Great Britain built by the Islamabad Kingdom of Brunei in 1843.
- The first USA trans-Atlantic steamers were the Herman and Washington.
- The first merchant ship to be all-welded without any rivets in its hull was the MS Fullagar in 1920.
- a) Man could no longer depend on nature –wind for power. This made travel by sea easier and more comfortable.
- b) It led to expansion of international trade since transportation became cheap.
- c) Bigger volumes and varieties of goods could be carried including those that required special handling like petrol.
- d) It formed the basis for colonization as colonizers could move to other continents easily.
- e) It increased international migrations and spread of races , cultures, diseases , intermarriages, languages and religion
- f) It led to greater expansion of geographical knowledge. It gave access to countries bordered by sea.
- g) It led to expansion of world economies, industries, trade and commerce.
- h) Spread of plants and animals internationally.
- With the invention of the internal combustion engine, oil replaced coal. The Caspian Steamer Wanal was built in 1903 was the first sizeable ship with an internal combustion engine.
- In the 20th c, the use of atomic energy (nuclear power) was developed. The first ship to use atomic power was the Nautilus in 1956. In 1961, an American merchant ship, MV Savannah, propelled by nuclear power was launched.
- a) The Liners operate regular scheduled services on defined trade routes charging advertised rates.
- b) The Tramp ships carry any suitable cargo between any two points based on a negotiated contract. They have no regular route or timetable.
- The cruise ship, the most important passenger liner, is a specially designed vessel providing luxurious surroundings and entertainment to passengers. It is about 270 m and carries 2000 passengers.
- New passenger Liners were developed after World War II for example the American United States of 1952 and the British Queen Elizabeth 2 of 1969.
- The liners were overtaken by the development of the aeroplane and airline transport and only a few remain today.
- These are Special Ocean going ships designed for carrying large amounts of cargo. Containerships transport large metal containers that have been pre-loaded with cargo. Some container ships carry over 6,800 containers.
- In 1859, the French launched Gloire, the first iron-plated ship. During the American civil war (1861-1865), two iron-plated ships were used.
- In world war II, battleships, Aircraft carriers (can carry 85 aircrafts) , cruisers, destroyers, destroyer escorts(frigates), minesweepers, torpedo boats, landing craft and other support vessels were developed.
- These are specialized water vessels (a hydrofoil has small wing-like surfaces called foils attached to the bottom of its hull that lifts the hull out of water when the hydrofoil accelerates. A hovercraft is lifted entirely off the water surface by a cushion of air and are propelled by giant air propellers or by water jets)
- These are vessels used to transport people, animals and vehicles over water in places where bridges would be inconvenient or impossible to build.
- These are small boats that are used for recreational purposes with either out boat motors or in boat motors.
- This is a form of transport used to move liquids, gases or solid liquid mixtures over long distances. The most common liquid that is transported by pipeline in many countries is water. Others are oil and gas. Pipelines are also used to transport solids suspended in liquids such as coal slurry which consists of powdered coal suspended in water.
- This is the fastest form of transport over long distances and continents. Different types of Aircraft exist.
- An airplane is an aircraft heavier than air that uses wings to obtain lift in order to fly thus transporting people, mail and cargo from place to place. They are also use in warfare.
- The development of an aeroplane started in 1783 when a successful manned flight was made in France by two brothers, Jacques and Joseph Montgolfier using a hot air balloon.
- Sir George Cayley, an English scholar and inventor, built model Gliders that could sail in the air in the 19th c. Later, Pilcher added wheels to the gliders in order for them to be towed into the air. By 1850, power driven planes were built. An English engineer, John String built and designed power-driven planes. In December 1903, An American astronomer, Samuel Langleys almost won the honour of perfecting the power driven airplanes, by making a full size airplane called the aerodrome. The plane unfortunately crashed in Potomac River before being launched.
- On 17th December 1903, two weeks after Langley’s failure, the Wright brothers, Orville and
- Wilbur Wright, produced the first manned power driven aeroplane at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina USA. Their machine was a wooden glider fitted with a petrol engine and two propellers.
- In 1906, a Brazilian-born aviation pioneer made the first officially observed European flight in a powered bi-plane.
- In 1909, Louis Bleriot of France became the first person to fly a plane across the English Channel in 35.5 minutes.
- In 1915, the Germans used the first mono-plane during the First World War.
- In 1919, John N. Alcock and Arthur W Brown flew non-stop across the Atlantic from New Foundland to Ireland.
- Later improvements in the plane were replacement of wood and cloth with aluminum and stainless steel, invention of a retractable gear that improved streamlining in planes
- By 1920, plane speed had gone up to 303 km /h. in 1940; it was 755 km/h.
- The best known aviator in 1920s was Charles Linburgh who accompanied a non-stop flight from New York to Paris in 1927 in his single monoplane called the spirit of Saint Louis in 33 hours.
- In 1920, the first scheduled passenger service was made between Amsterdam and England by KLM Dutch Airlines.
- In 1930, the first pressurized plane was launched.
- The most popular passenger plane at that time was the DC-3 built by Douglas Aircraft Company. It had a capacity of 30 people and moved at a speed of 320 km.
- The jet engine was invented by German engineers in 1939.the first jet powered airplane was the german Heinkel HE -178. The first practical jet fighter was the Lockheed P-8 developed in 1944.
- During the post war period, the jet engines were put to commercial use.. For example, the Boeing 707 flight which was launched in 1958 in USA. The Boeing 747 Jumbo Jet which entered the market in 1970 can carry 375 passengers, 20 tonnes of freight and move at a speed of 900 km/h.
- The Supersonic Loans Port (SST) is designed to fly at speeds of over 1180 km/h. the Russian TU-144 and the French – British Concorde are both SSTs and entered passenger market in 1972.
- It is a type of airplane which obtains its lift from a set of rotor blades rather than fixed wings. The first successful helicopter was made in 1907 when a French helicopter left the ground for a few seconds.
- Germany made the first practical helicopter in 1936 while the United States Army unveiled its wartime helicopter in 1942.
Lighter- than-air-vehicles.
- These include balloons relying on hot air and lighter than air gases like helium and hydrogen for lift.
- Airships that combine lighter than air gas bags with propellers navigation were initially used for passenger traffic but their usage declined due to several fatal accidents. For example the disaster that befell the german airship, Hindenburg, in New Jersey in 1937.
- Rocket engines use fuel. They carry chemicals which enable them to burn their fuel without air supply. The first rocket engine to be used was by a german manufacturer, Fritz von Opel in 1930. An American, R H Goddard also developed a modern rocket in Massachusetts in the USA.
- a) The effect of the First World War- it increased demand of war planes-jet fighters and fighter planes flying over 600kph were manufactured.
- b) The arms race and the cold war which also made many countries to acquire many planes.-fear , jealousy and competition based on ideological differences.
- c) Desire for comfort among passengers and the need to transport perishables quickly.
- d) Expansion of international trade and desire for more wealth.
- e) Colonization and international migrations.
- f) The expansion of the tourist industry.
- g) Vast improvement in science and technology and growth of industries.
- 1) Air transport is a major global employer. The air transport industry directly generates 5.5 million jobs globally and contributes USD 408 billion to global GDP. It directly contributed USD 1,830 billion to world GDP in 2007 and generated 79 million direct jobs globally – 2.8% of total employment.
- 2) Air transport is an important facilitator of international trade, thereby promoting economic growth and development. Forecasts suggest that the global economy will become even more dependent on trade over the next decade. World trade is expected to nearly double, rising at more than twice the rate of global GDP growth, with China, India and emerging markets leading the way.
- 3) Air transport stimulates Tourism which makes a major contribution to the global economy. The air transport industry plays a major role in supporting tourism. Over 40% of international tourists now travel by air, up from 35% in 1990. At the same time, the WTTC estimates that foreign visitors account for just fewer than 25% of overall tourism spending around the world. This includes spending by business travelers, as well as those on leisure trips or visiting friends and relatives.
- 4) Air transport is a significant tax payer. Unlike other transport modes, the air transport industry directly pays for its own infrastructure costs. The user charges collected by airport operators pay both for the day-to-day services they provide to airlines and their customers, and also for the massive investment in runways, terminals and other infrastructure required for a modern, efficient air transport service. In addition, companies in the air transport industry make significant tax payments to national treasuries.
- 5) Air transport expands the range of consumer choices and opportunities to visit other countries and to experience new cultures.
- 6) Air transport delivers humanitarian aid. Air services play an essential role in humanitarian assistance to countries facing natural disasters, famine and war – through cargo deliveries, refugee transfers or the evacuation of people trapped by natural disasters. They are particularly important in situations where access is a problem – for example, ‘air drops’ are among the first response of aid agencies to stem a humanitarian crisis.
- 7) Air transport also plays a vital role in the rapid delivery of Medical supplies and organs for transplantation worldwide.
- 8) Air transport provides access to remote areas. Air transport provides access to remote areas where other transport modes are limited. Many essential services, such as food deliveries, hospitals, education and post, would not be available for people in such locations without air services. And residents would be isolated from family, friends and business contacts.
- 9) Air transport has improved security as soldiers can be flown to troubled areas. Aeroplanes are also used in espionage
- 10) Air transport has led to improvement f space exploration. Satellites are used to study objects in space such as stars and planets.
- 11) Air transport has promoted international cooperation and understanding. People from different countries can exchange ideas..
- 12) It has provides the fastest means of transport for passengers and goods thus increasing cultural and social exchange.
- 13) Aeroplanes are used to break hail in order to cause rain.
- 14) Plans and other aircraft have added to variety to sporting and entertainment. E.g the staging of fighter plane shows in public holiday celebration.
- 15) Aircraft has revolutionized warfare especially during the Second World War when countries began using panes in warfare.
- 16) International terrorism has been facilitated in the recent past by aeroplanes. Incidents of planes being hijacked are becoming common in the world today.
- 17) Air transport contributes to environmental pollution due to waste discharged by the burning fuel. Jets cause noise pollution.
- 18) Air transport has enhanced agriculture as planes are used to spray and dust insecticides on crops in the case of large scale farming. They are also used in quick delivery of perishable farm produce from horticultural farms.
- 19) Planes assist in fire fighting, inspecting fence lines and power cables and border patrol.
- 20) Aeroplanes are used in making aerial survey in cartography thus improving map making.
- 21) Air transport enhances wildlife management and conservation. Counting of animals by wildlife officers is one used planes.
- 22) In meteorology, air transport has enhanced weather survey.
- 23) Air transport sometimes leads to deaths of many people when fatal accidents occur. For example, the mid-air blow-up of the trans World Airline plane over the Atlantic ocean in July 1996, the 5th may 2007 crashing of a Nairobi –bound KQ 507 moments after leaving Duala international Airport in Cameroon killing 114 passengers.
- This is the attempt by scientists to reach the heavenly bodies namely the stars and moon to learn more about them and their importance to man as a whole.
- Space age refers to the period in which the exploration of space became possible. It began with the launch of the first artificial satellite in October 1957 by the soviet union- Sputnik.
- The first human to go to space was a Russian Major Yuri Gagarin using Vostok I in April 1961. In the same year an American, John Glenn also went to space.
- Neil Armstrong, an American Became the first man to land on the moon in July 1969 in his space craft, Apollo II. He was accompanied by Edwin E Aldrin Jr and Michael Collins. Many other have toured the moon since then.
- Later on a space shuttle was built. The first space shuttle, Columbia, launched in 1981, carried two American astronauts, John W. Young and Robert L Crpens. In 1983, the space shuttle, challenger released a satellite into space. One of the crew members, Sally K Ride became the first woman astronaut to go to space.
- In 1984, Kathryn D Sullivan became the first American woman to walk in space.
- By 1988, there were 300 operating satellites in space while 1200 were not functioning.
- a) Deadly hazards like cosmetics and solar radiation and micro meteorites dangerous to space craft.
- b) Hostile natural environment which is unsuitable for human life making it very expensive.
- c) Extreme temperatures and light intensities. Extreme darkness and brightness.
Importance of space exploration to man.
- a) Spacecrafts continue to provide information about conditions in space in particular about the weather.
- b) Reports derived from weather satellite can act as warning systems about impending storm.
- c) It helps us to gain more knowledge about our planet earth. e.g. a scientific satellite known as Vanguard 1 sent back pictures, which showed that the earth was slightly pear-shaped.
- d) Communication satellites like the Telstra and Relay have made it possible to send television programmes and telephone calls over much longer distances.
- e) In 1965, the US achieved another momentous feat in space communication. The mariner4 in a deep space probe sent back pictures of mars that were taken as it passed the planet.
- f) Some space exploration offers possibilities without limit. Planets themselves may have metals and other resources that men on earth need.
- g) Information about outer space may make it possible to make rain and make long-range weather forecast more accurately than before.
- h) Some scientists are optimistic that space research might make it possible for human beings to settle on some planets; so far, we are not very definite about this.
- i) Humankind can benefit from medicine prepared under ideal conditions on the planet namely dust free and germ free medicine.
- j) Space exploration enhances technological development.
- k) It facilitates own understanding of the universe.
- l) It leads to improved manufacture of aircrafts, telescope and related machines.
- m) Contributed to development of advanced air force weapons.
- Africa’s first high speed train system, the Gautrain, was officially lanced in Johannesburg on 8th June 2010 to connect the cities of Johannesburg and Pretoria with a 160 km/h rail service.
- a) It has made local and international trade more efficient. Trade in perishable goods such as flowers and vegetables have been expanded thanks to air transport.
- b) Population migration and settlement all over the world has been encouraged using the means of transport.
- c) It has facilitated the quick transfer of technology and ideas as people interact
- d) It has made industries more efficient. Raw materials, industrial workers, and manufactured goods are transported to their destinations cheaply and quickly.
- e) It has promoted tourist industry which is a major foreign exchange earner in many countries. Accessibility to tourist attraction sites has greatly improved.
- f) It has generated employment opportunities to many as road constructers, drivers, pilots and mechanics.
- g) It contributes additional revenue to the government. Countries charge toll fee, license fee and fuel levy
- h) Air transport enhances space exploration.
- i) Has contributed to the growth of the service sector like banking and insurance.
- j) Transport has promoted humanitarian assistance particularly in disaster situations, e.g distribution of relief food, medical services and evacuations during catastrophes and wars.
- k) It has led to growth of schools and hospitals and social amenities. In Kenya most schools and hospitals are located along transport routes.
- l) It has led to agricultural development. Farmers have been able to increase food production since they can transport farm produce and inputs more efficiently and effectively.
- m) It has stimulated the growth of urban centres. Towns such as London, Nairobi and Harare started off due to their location along transport roués. The towns have also grown due to their transport function.
- n) Transport has enhanced political control in countries. National security has been enhanced due to accessibility of many areas of a nation.
- o) Transport facilitated colonization of Africa and Asian countries. Railway systems helped them to conquer and suppress local resistances to facilitate easy administration.
- a) Transport systems are responsible for many accidents in world leading to loss of lives. The Mtongwe ferry accident in Kenya claimed 257 lives in 1994; a plane crash in Ngong in 2012 killed the minister for internal security professor George Saitoti and six others.
- b) Transport is responsible for environmental pollution. Different forms of transport emit poisonous gases to the atmosphere. Oil –tankers cause oil spills in the sea s leading to marine pollution.
- c) Unless they complement each other, different forms of transport are unreliable. For example, water and railway transport have to be complemented by road transport.
- d) The growth of international terrorism has been attributed to transport network.
KCSE History Topical Questions
HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT NOTES FORM 1, 2, 3 AND 4 IN PDF
FORM 1
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introduction_to_history_and_government.pdf | |
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early_man.pdf | |
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early-man-story.pdf | |
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development__of_early_agriculture.pdf | |
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the_peoples_of_kenya_up_to_the__19th_century.pdf | |
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contacts_between_east_africa___the_outside_world.pdf | |
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citizenship.pdf | |
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national_intergration.pdf | |
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FORM 2
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trade.pdf | |
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development_of_transport_and_communication.pdf | |
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development_of_industry.pdf | |
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urbanization.pdf | |
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social_economic_and_political_organization_of_african_societies_in_the_19th_century.pdf | |
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Introduction
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Development and organization of long distance trade during pre-colonial period in East Africa
19/4/2021
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AFRICAN UNION
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CHAPTER 17: ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIAL RULE IN KENYA.
CHAPTER 18: COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION
CHAPTER 20: Political Developments And Struggle For Independence In Kenya (1919-1963)
CHAPTER 21: Rise Of African Nationalism
CHAPTER 22: EMERGENCE AND GROWTH OF NATIONALISM IN AFRICA
Chapter 28: Social
Christian Missionaries In East Africa
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Contacts Between East Africa And The Outside World Up To The 19th Century
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EARLY MAN
Economic And Political Developments And Challenges In Africa Since Independence
ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS AND CHALLENGES IN KENYA SINCE INDEPENDENCE
Economic-and-political-organization-of-african-societies-in-the-19th-century
Electoral Processes
European Invasion And The Process Of Colonization Of Africa
European Invasion Of Africa
FORM 1 LEVEL
FORM 2
Form 3 Level
FORM 4
Formation-of-government
Functions Of Governments
HISTORY FORM 1 TOPICS
India
International Relations
INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT
LEGISLATURE.
LIVES AND CONTRIBUTIONS OF KENYAN LEADERS
Local Authorities In Kenya
MULTI-PARTY DEMOCRACY IN KENYA SINCE 1991
NATIONAL INTEGRATION
National Philosophies (Kenya)
ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN UNITY (OAU)
Pre Colonial East Africa
Pre-Colonial East Africa
PUBLIC REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE IN KENYA
SOCIAL
Structure And Functions Of The Government Of Kenya
THE COMMON MARKETS FOR EASTERN AND SOUTHERN AFRICA
THE EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY
The Electoral Process
THE EXECUTIVE
THE JUDICIARY.
THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT
THE PAN-AFRICAN CONGRESSES (1900-1945)
THE PEOPLES OF KENYA UP TO THE 19TH CENTURY
THE SECOND WORLD WAR
Trade
TRANSPORT
United States
Urbanization
WORLD WARS